Strategic Human Resource Management: a Paradigm Shift for Achieving

International Bulletin of Business Administration ISSN: 1451-243X Issue 7 (2010)  © EuroJournals, Inc. 2010 http://www. eurojournals. com Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM): A Paradigm Shift for Achieving Sustained Competitive Advantage in Organization Benjamin James Inyang Department of Business Management, University of Calabar P. M. B. 1115 Calabar, Nigeria E-mail: benji1955. [email  protected] co. uk Tel: +234 8033773403 Abstract The human resource of an organization offered the potential synergy for sustained competitive advantage, when properly deployed, maintained and utilized.From the onset, the traditional HRM, the formal system for managing people in organization, concerned itself essentially with transactional and administrative support services. The emergence of SHRM, concerned with the relationship between HRM and strategic management of the organization, was a paradigm shift. The strategic business partner model emphasized the proper integration or fit of HR practices with the business strategies of the organization, to generate a competitive advantage.To perform successfully, the roles of business partner and change agent under SHRM, the HR practitioner must be highly knowledgeable, multiskilled and acquire core competencies like business knowledge, strategic visioning and global operating skills, credibility and integrity, internal consulting skills, among others. Keywords: Strategic human resource management, human resource management, competitive advantage, fit, integration, business strategy, strategic business partner. 1. IntroductionAn organization requires the utilization of a complex array of resources to grow, survive and achieve the ultimate mission or objectives that informed its existence or creation. The mobilization and deployment of these resources – human, financial and material – in the right resource-mix, gives the organization leverage toward the desired end. Of these resources, the human resource is t he most potent and central, contributing significantly to corporate bottom line and competitiveness.The organization therefore gains sustained competitive advantage through people, the organization workforce. Competitive advantage is simply defined as anything that gives an organization an edge over the competitors in its market. According to Porter (1985), the unique talents among employees, including flexibility, innovation, superior performance, high productivity and personal customer service are ways employees provide a critical ingredient in developing a firm’s competitive position.Similarly, Chiavenato (2001) notes that employees are purveyors of activities and knowledge whose most important contributions in the organization are their intelligence and individual talents. There is a 23 growing consensus that effective management of human capital is critical to an organization’s success (Barney & Wright, 1998; Jackson, Hitt & DeNisi, 2003; Akhtar, Ding & Ge, 2008). Managing the human resources in the organization is the traditional responsibility of the personnel manager, a precursor to human resource management (HRM).Some scholars however equate HRM with personnel management, concerned with providing staff support in the organization (e. g. Guest, 1989). Other scholars consider HRM as a natural development of personnel management practices in the face of changing economic and business environment (Armstrong, 1989 & 2004; and Fajana, 2002). The people-management discipline is undergoing continuous metamorphosis, with the recent emergence of strategic human resource management (SHRM) in organization and management literature.In a recent review covering 30 years, Lengnick-Hall, Lengnick-Hall, Andrade & Drake (2009) present an evolutionary and chronological perspective on the development of SHRM. The authors identify the following seven themes which influenced the development of the field of SHRM: (1) explaining contingency perspective and fit, (2) shifting from a focus on managing people to creating strategic contributions, (3) elaborating HR system components and structure, (4) expanding the scope of SHRM, (5) achieving HR implementation and execution, (6) measuring outcomes of SHRM, and (7) evaluating methodological issues.SHRM is evolving as a new approach to the management of people, and specifically focusing on integrating the human capital to business strategy to enhance organizational competitiveness. According to Aswathappa (2004:39), â€Å"the advent of SHRM has brought forward the issues of linkages between the employer-employee relationships and wider organizational strategies and corporate objectives†. â€Å"The field of strategic human resources management has enjoyed a remarkable ascendancy during the past two decades, as both an academic literature and focus on management practice† (Becker & Huselid, 2006:898).The transition from the older HR practice with focus on staff matter to a subject of re-birth which focuses on linking people as organizational asset with the business strategy of the firm (Niehaus, 1995) means that the HR professional is performing a new and more challenging responsibility that requires new competencies and skills. He has to think outside the traditional organizational box of HR – and develop a radically different approach to manage the human capital and create a fit between HR architecture and business strategy formulation and implementation in the firm.The HR architecture, according to (Becker & Huselid, 2006:899) â€Å"is composed of the systems, practices, competencies, and employee performance behaviors that reflect the development and management of the firm’s strategic human capital†. This paper discusses the emergence of SHRM as a paradigm shift and the pertinent issues raised or implied in this transition. It further presents the resource-based view (RBV) of integrating SHRM with business strategy.The organizational im plications of the strategic business partner model for corporate competitiveness, and the strategic skills and core competencies required of the HR practitioner are finally discussed. 2. Literature Review: Traditional HRM versus SHRM In their seminal thesis on the development of HR function, Jamrog & Overholt (2004:1) declare that â€Å"over the past 100 years the HRM professional has been continuously evolving and changing, adding more and different responsibilities†.The authors’ account shows that the HRM function has evolved through many stages, from the medieval time through the industrial revolution, the scientific management, the human relations movement, etc. , to the present strategic business partner model. For most of its history, HR has mainly focused on the administrative aspects of HRM, except recently, with the strident call for HRM to become a strategic business partner (Ulrich, 1997; Brockbank 1999; Lawler III & Mohrman, 2000; and Lawler III & Mohrman, 2003). 24Some scholars therefore, are wont to differentiate between the traditional HRM and SHRM. Traditional HRM is transactional in nature, concerned essentially with providing administrative support in terms of staffing, recruitment, compensation and benefits (Rowden, 1999; and Wei, 2006). Ulrich (1997) argues that the HR function has been an administrative function headed by personnel whose roles are essentially focused on cost control and administrative activities. Managing people is therefore the responsibility of HR manager.HRM is then a â€Å"formal system for the management of people within the organization† (Bateman & Zeithaml, 1993:346). For Inyang (2001:8), HRM is simply â€Å"organization’s activities, which are directed at attracting, developing and maintaining an effective workforce†. The many transactional or administrative activities involved in managing the human resources of an organization – training and development, staff motivation, compensation, staff commitment, quality performance, etc. are meant to be carried out effectively to influence the achievement of corporate objectives (Inynag, 2008a).The paradigm shift from the administrative aspects of HRM led to the emergence of SHRM as a new generation of value-added core responsibility or function of HRM. The emphasis of SHRM is that of a strategic business partner. It now supports the company’s competitive advantage by providing high quality people and by helping business managers strategically plan the functions of the human capital within the organizations (Rowden, 1999). SHRM strongly beliefs that critical organizational capabilities or performance behaviors are sine qua non, for the attainment of a particular business strategy or goal.Unlike the traditional HRM which covers a wide range of employment practices, including recruitment, selection, performance appraisal, training and development and administration of compensation and benefits, SHRM refl ects a more flexible arrangement and utilization of human resources to achieve organizational goals, and accordingly helps organizations gain competitive advantage (Wei, 2006). For Becker & Huselid (2006:899) the traditional HRM differs from SHRM in two important ways: â€Å"First, SHRM focuses on organizational performance rather than individual performance.Second, it also emphasizes the role of HR management systems as solutions to business problems (including positive and negative complementarities) rather than individual HR management practices in isolation†. This therefore reflects a shift of emphasis from operating efficiency of individual employees to managerial efficiency of the entire organization. The distinction presented in this review shows SHRM as a more systematic approach, which extends beyond the management of human capital and people – management activity to involve the integration of human factors to strategic business goals of the organization.The s trategic business partner focus of SHRM helps to add value to the organization – by contributing to the bottom line and competitive advantage. Despite its current popularity among academics and HR professionals, SHRM is still experiencing problems of status identity and precise definition (McMahan, Virick & Wright, 1999: 101). Dyer & Kochan (1994) note the problem of status identity as affecting the development of a systematic theory of SHRM.Even the definitions of SHRM vary in emphasis among scholars: Wright & McMahan (1992); and Lundy (1994) emphasize the elements of HR planning; Hendry & Petigrew (1990, 1992) stress the management of organizational change; Watson (1986) defines it as coordination mechanism of the organization; Beer (1984), Guest (1987), Dyer & Holders (1988), Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall (1990); Schuler, Dowling & De Cieri (1993), Truss & Gratton (1994); Ulrich (1997), Boxall (1999); Brand & Bax (2002) highlight HR policies as a tool for business strategy .Despite the differences in definition, a common thread that is emerging in the literature is that which stresses the relationship between business strategy and HR practices as the core of SHRM. What has also emerged from the literature is the broad agreement of the basic function of SHRM, which is concerned with designing and implementing a set of internally consistent policies and practices that ensure the human capital of an organization contributes to the achievement of its business objectives (Schuler & MacMillan, 1984), Baird & Meshoulam, 1988; Jackson & Schuler, 1995).On his part, Armstrong (2004:105) states that SHRM is essentially â€Å"concerned with the relationship between human resource management and strategic management of the firm†. Following from this, he defines 25 SHRM as â€Å"the overall direction the organization wishes to pursue in order to achieve its goals through people† (p. 105). SHRM is a strategic approach to manage human resource of an org anization. It concerns all organizational ctivities which affect the behavior of individuals in their effort to formulate and implement planned strategies that will help organization achieve the business objectives. According to the Gomez-Mejia, Balking, & Cardy (1995), SHRM implies a managerial orientation that ensures that human resources are employed in a manner conducive to the achievement of organizational goals and missions. SHRM must give careful consideration to the organizational import of all human resource decisions and to their links with the external environment and the organization’s competitive strategy (Beaumont, 1993).In their own contribution, Boxall & Purcell (2003) argue that SHRM is concerned with explaining how HRM influences organizational performance. It is obvious from this point that SHRM is based on the principles incorporating, the concept of strategy. Therefore, if HRM is a coherent approach to the management of people, then SHRM implies that this approach is done on a planned way that integrates organizational goals with policies and action sequences (CIPD, 2007). 3. SHRM and Business Strategy Fit or IntegrationThe new business context, which is characterized by increasing globalization, greater organizational complexity, market competitiveness and cutting-edge information communication technology, is prompting organization executives to take more interest in the deployment and utilization of their human resources. The HR function is therefore playing a far more strategic role in the business or corporate strategic planning process in the organization. The emergence of SHRM is increasingly adding more value to the organization. Thus, SHRM is based on HRM principles, which integrate the concept of business strategy.Strategy here refers to â€Å"the pattern of organizational moves and managerial techniques or approaches used to attain organization objectives and to pursue the organization’s mission† (Inyang, 200 4:20). Strategy is also considered as â€Å"the process by which the basic mission and objectives of the organization are set, and the process by which the organization uses its resources to achieve these objectives† (Tichy, Fombrun, & Devanna, 1982:47). Organizations must choose and follow the diverse approaches in order to achieve success or gain competitive advantage.Scholarly advocacy as already noted has consistently emphasized the need for HRM to become a strategic business partner. That means that SHRM has to be integrated with business strategy. This is also the issue of fit. Integration or fit refers to the involvement of SHRM in the formulation and implementation of organizational strategies and the alignment of SHRM with the strategic needs of an organization (e. g. Buyens & De Vos 1999; Schuler & Jackson, 1999). To become strategic business partner means that the HR managers should participate in strategic decision-making alongside other senior managers in the org anization.This, according to Ulrich (1997), would provide greater opportunity to align HR goals, strategies, philosophies and practices with corporate objectives and the implementation of business strategies. The involvement of HR managers would be to become members of senior or top management in the organization (Budhwar, 2000; Teo, 2000). Membership at this level in the organizational hierarchy offers opportunity for SHRM to represent its concerns and influence the direction of business strategy from the onset of the decision making process.This involvement from the crafting stage of strategy decision-making will enhance commitment on the part of the HR managers during implementation stage of such business strategy. Inyang (2008b) argues for the co-optation of the HR manager to business policy formulation as a business partner, to help drive policy implementation to success and attain competitive advantage. There is research evidence that integration tends to result in enhanced co mpetence, congruence and cost effectiveness (Black & Boal, 1994; Teece, Pisano & Shuen, 1997). 6 There is increasing attention being focused on SHRM discourse about congruence or fit† or integration between HR practice and business strategy (Baird & Meshoulam, 1988; Wright & McMahan, 1992; and Wei, 2006). The underlying assertion in the fit analyses is that the employment of effective HR practices and the design of an HR system compatible with the firm strategy are sine qua non for the successful implementation of the organization’s business strategies (Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall, 1988).Fit is therefore a fundamental feature of SHRM, which connotes the utilization of human resources to enhance the attainment of organizational goals. According to Wright & McMahan (1992:298), fit means â€Å"†¦ the pattern of planned human resource deployment and activities to enable a firm to achieve its goal†. Scholars of SHRM identify two kinds of fit: horizontal fit and vertical fit. Horizontal fit refers to the congruence among various HRM practices (Baird & Meshoulam, 1998), and vertical fit refers to the alignment of HRM practice with strategic management process of the firm (Schuler & Jackson, 1987).Generally, vertical fit or integration is necessary to provide congruence between business and human resource strategy so that the latter supports the accomplishment of the former, and helps to define it. Horizontal fit or integration with other aspects of the HR strategy is required so that its different elements fit together. The aim is to achieve a coherent approach to managing human resources, in a manner in which the various practices are mutually supportive.Both types of fit contribute significantly to the competitiveness of an organization and it is important for organization to arrange a variety of HR practices in a systematic way. According to Pfeffer (1994), a set of properly arranged HR practices can have a positive impact on a firm perf ormance when they are properly implemented. Creating a proper fit or integration is the key issue in SHRM and it is this congruence in organization’s HR practices that impact on the bottom line. Figure 1 below illustrates these concepts and their impact on the organization.Figure 1: Two Types of Fit Vertical: (Alignment of HR practices with business strategy) SHRM Integration/Fit Horizontal: (Congruence among HR practices) †¢ †¢ †¢ Bottom Line Competitiveness Performance SHRM is essentially about integration – integrating HR practices with the business strategy of the organization. Both the vertical and horizontal fits create the congruence between business strategy and human resource policies which jointly enhance the attainment of bottom line, competitiveness and performance.Thus SHRM helps the organization to achieve strategic fit with its market environment. One of the key policy goals of SHRM according to Guest (1989) is to ensure that HR is integra ted into strategic planning so that HRM policies cohere both across policy areas and across hierarchies and HRM practices are used by line managers as part of their everyday work. Walker (1992) points out that the HR strategies are functional strategies like marketing, production or IT strategies, but they are different in the sense that they are intertwined with all other strategies in the organization.Managing the human resource is a very unique function in the organization, and the human capital provides the 27 resources for implementing all business strategies. Therefore, HR planning should be an integral part of all other strategy formulations in the organization. 4. SHRM and the Resource Based View (RBV) of the Firm The RBV of the firm is based on the ideas of Penrose (1959), who sees the firm as â€Å"an administrative organization and a collection of productive resources†. A firm that obtains and develops the human resource can achieve competitive advantage (Hamel & P rahalad (1989).Other researchers have similarly advocated the need to align HR systems with the firm’s strategy to create competitive advantage (Barney, 1986, 1991; and Wright & McMahan, 1992). The underlying assumption of the RBV of the firm is resource heterogeneity. This means that the resources that different firms own are unlikely to be identical. Accordingly, these resources owned by the firm that help it achieve sustained competitive advantage must meet four requirements. The resources must be (i) valuable, (2) rare, (3) inimitable, and (4) non-substitutable.This follows therefore that if the resources a firm employs cannot be easily imitated by another firm or substituted by similar resources another firm employs the firm can easily take advantage of this to gain competitiveness not simultaneously pursued by other firms. Snell, Youndt & Wright (1996) argue that human resources meet these four requirements. Others have equally shown that the linkage of organizational r esources and firm strategy cannot be easily identified and imitated by other firms due to the social complexity and causal ambiguity (Barney, 1991, Boxall, 1998).Thus, the integration of human resource practices and policies with the appropriate strategy can generate a sustained competitive advantage for the firm (Wei, 2006). The firm’s HR policies, practices and strategies are a unique blend of process, procedures, personalities, styles, capabilities and organizational culture, which are difficult to imitate. As Purcell, Kinnie, Hutchinson, Rayton & Swart (2003) point out, the values and HR policies of an organization constitute important non-imitable resources, as long as they are enacted and implemented effectively.One of the most important factors of competitive advantage is the ability to differentiate what a business supplies to its customers from what is supplied by its competitors. Purcell et al (2003) maintain that such differentiation can be achieved by having HR st rategies, policies and practices which ensure that: 1. The firm has higher quality people than its competitors. 2. The unique intellectual capital possessed by the business is developed and nurtured. 3. Organizational learning is encouraged, and 4.Organizational specific values and a culture exist that ‘bind the organization together [and] give it focus’. The RBV of the firm is concerned with developing strategic capacity, making adequate investment in the organization’s human capital to add more value to the firm. According to Armstrong (2004:108), the aim of RBV â€Å"is to improve resource capability – achieving strategic fit between resources and opportunities, and obtaining added value from the effective deployment of resources†.It is generally acknowledged that the human resource is an organizational asset, and when it is adequately trained and effectively deployed can contribute immensely to the bottom line. Aligning the HR systems with busin ess strategy is therefore a sine qua non for organizational competitiveness. Business strategies designed to achieve organizational objectives are not likely to succeed when HRM is not involved in both strategy formulation and implementation. Organizations must create the conducive environment for integrating HRM with business strategy since the HR supplies the energies for driving organization strategies.Wei (2006) notes that the HR system and practices are crucial in facilitating the achievement of business strategy through the management of people. Several studies have shown that a firm’s HR creates value in the organization in different ways. The impact of SHRM on organizational performance is quite obvious. SHRM has positive effect on business performance (Martell & Carrol, 1995); SHRM can help an organization to allocate its human 28 resources more effectively, promote operating efficiency, and encourage creativity and innovation (Dyer, 1983; Walker, 1980); it enables t he firm ope more effectively with the challenges of environmental change (Cook & Ferris, 1986; Tichy & Barnett, 1985); encourages a more proactive management style, transmits organizational goals clearly and motivates greater involvement by line managers in HRM concerns (Gomez-Mejia, Balking & Cardy, 1995); enhances organizational morale, financial performance, and overall organizational performance (Huang, 1998; Anderson, Cooper & Zhu, 2007); brings about commitment, customer satisfaction and innovation (Pfeffer, 1994; Chew & Chong, 1999; Bowen, Galang & Pillai, 2000; Wright & Kehoe, 2008); enhances market value per employee (Becker & Huselid, 1998); creates value for customers and stakeholders (Ramlall, 2006); and brings about return on equity (Delery & Doty, 1996).Garavan (2007:11) sees strategic human resource development as contributing â€Å"to the creation of firm-specific knowledge and skill when it is aligned with the strategic goals of the organization†. Increased p roductivity has also been noted in small enterprises that align or integrate their formal and informal HR practices and strategies with the business strategies of the organization (Singh & Vohra, 2005). 5. The Roles of SHRM Professional The HR professional has more challenging roles to perform under SHRM – the emergent business partner model. Unlike the traditional HRM, which is transactional in nature and is concerned with administrative activities, SHRM is a value-added core responsibility that aligns the HR system, policies and practices with business strategy to gain sustained competitive advantage for the firm.In performing the new challenging roles, the HR professional must think outside the traditional organizational box of HRM and develop a more systematic and radically different approach to manage the human element to effectively support the firm’s business strategy formulation and implementation. For successful implementation of the business partner role, the HR manager needs to understand the company’s business direction and its competitive position in the market place. Apart from this, to become a successful strategic partner, the HR manager must have competencies that have to do with the business issues involved in strategy and strategy development, and ability to contribute to organizational design and change management (Lawler, III and Mohrman, 2003).The HR function, according to Rowden (1999) must change from a staff function that delivers prepackaged HR services to a service that helps managers create customized strategic plans to influence the effectiveness of company performance. The HR manager can play an important role in the formulation of strategy and providing the human resource required to support various strategies and strategic initiatives in the organization. He provides the leadership role in developing the human capital and the necessary capabilities to enact the strategy and drive the implementation and chang e management processes to success (Lawler III & Mohrman, 2003). Good human capital management is a prerequisite for successful execution of business strategies.According to Ulrich (1998), the modern HR professional must perform four complementary roles. The first role, administrative excellence, is important because it is an immediate way of contributing to the overall efficiency of the organization. As administration expert, he must rethink how work is done throughout the organization. The second role HR professionals must realize is that of employee champion. The HR manager must play the crucial role of employee advocate. He should be the employee’s voice in management discussion, offer employee opportunities for personal and professional growth; and provide resources that employees need to meet the demands put on them.The new role might also involve suggesting, that employees be given more control over their own work schedules. This is the issue of employee empowerment. Tw o additional roles the modern HR professional must realize are those of strategic partner and change agent. Being a strategic partner calls for an on going evaluation of the alignment between current HR practices and the business objectives of the firm, and a continuing effort to design policies and practices that maximize this alignment. HR practitioner should be held responsible for defining an 29 organizational architecture – that is, identifying the organization’s way of doing business.Such framework as looking at the organizational components – strategy, structure, rewards, processes, people, style and shared values may be adopted. This new knowledge will allow HR to add value to the executive team with confidence. Being a change agent the HR manager must play a key role in implementing and managing organization change, assessing potential, sources of resistance to change, and collaborating with line managers to overcome these barriers. The HR professionalà ¢â‚¬â„¢s role as a change agent is to replace resistance with resolve, planning with results and fear of change with excitement about its possibilities. These last two roles – strategic partner and change agent – are of particular interest to us because they represent the emerging strategic dimension of HR function SHRM.In addition to the above roles the HR practitioner needs to be a model and take on the specific role of integrating people strategies with business strategies in a way that advances the bottom line. Metzler (1998) adds that: the HR manager must play an active and guiding role in enabling the organization to choose its human resources well, invest in these people, support that growth and respect their needs, while fostering innovations needed to achieve the strategic business objectives. The HR professional operating under the SHRM system must chart roles that include early and active involvement in key strategic business choices. He must become the part ner of decision makers in the organization, and sharing accountability for organizing and performing work.He must carry out effective monitoring to see that everyone in the organization, and at every organizational hierarchy, stay focused on share strategic priorities. He must challenge old ways and constantly promote innovation to enhance corporate performance and the firm’s competitiveness. 6. Requisite Strategic Skill Development and Competencies To function as a strategic business partner and successfully execute the new critical and challenging responsibilities, to bring about the bottom line, the HR professional needs to possess the relevant strategic skills or core competencies. Ismail & Long (2009: 118) define competency in general term â€Å"as a personnel related concept referring to a set of behavioral dimensions of one’s effective performance work†.Inyang (2009:65) considers competencies as constituting â€Å"a cluster of related knowledge, attitude s, and skills, which an individual acquires and uses together, to produce outstanding performance in any given area of responsibility†. A lack of certain competencies may affect the HR professional in the performance of the strategic role in the organization (Aitchison, 2007). Zigarelli (1997) identifies seven strategic skills that can help the manager develop effective strategic plans to handle the emerging challenges in the organization: 1. Global operating skills: These skills enable him to understand the issues of globalization and how to do business with individuals of diverse background or nationalities. 2.Business and financial savvy: He needs to understand financial reports, business goals, and possess the business acumen necessary to understand and support the function. 3. Strategic visioning, critical thinking and problem solving skills: As a strategic business partner, he needs the skills to take the lead in contributing to strategy, vision, and critical thinking to gain credibility for the HR function. 4. Ability to use information technology: The HR professional must be well grounded in information communication technology (ICT) and leverage this for business results. ICT is the engine that drives the modern organizations to business success and offers them sustained competitive advantage. 5.Deep HR knowledge: He needs to be well grounded in the theoretical and practical fundamentals of HR to adequately articulate HR practices. He needs to invest more time and resources for training and development. 30 6. Change management skills: He needs these skills to move the organization to new and more efficient ways of doing business. He needs to show commitment to change management in the organization. 7. Organizational effectiveness skills: These skills enable him to diagnose the effectiveness of the organization as accurately as possible to portray the current and future state of the organization. He can then monitor and correct inefficiencies. Ye ung, Wolcock & Sullivan (1996) identify the following core competencies that effective HR professionals should develop: 1.Business knowledge: Capacity to understand competitive issues impacting the business (e. g. , market, products, technology, processes) and to understand how business can create profit and value. 2. Customer orientation: Ability to viewing issues from the perspective of customers. 3. Effective communication: The ability to provide both verbal and written information clearly, consistently and persuasively. 4. Credibility and integrity: To walk what you talk, act with integrity in all business transactions and honor personal commitments. 5. Systemic perspective: The ability to view problems and issues in the context of the bigger picture and understand the inter-relationships among sub-components. 6.Negotiation and conflict resolution skills: The capacity to reach agreements and consensus in spite of different goals and priorities. Similarly, Ismail & Long (2009) ex amine six competencies – business knowledge, strategic contributions, HR delivery, personal credibility, HR technology and internal consultation, which HR professional needs to possess in order to function in his strategic partnership role and to excel in the current competitive environment. These competencies are based on Human Resource Competency Study (HRCS) under the initiative of the University of Michigan in the year 2003 (Brockbank & Ulrich, 2003), except internal consultation.The HR practitioner must acquire consulting skills which constitute a combination of diagnostic and behavioral skills that enable the professional, who is in support function in the organization to collaborate with the line managers to develop strategic solutions to business performance problems. As an internal consultant therefore, the HR manager is in a better position to contribute significantly to the functioning of other departments, solving problems, and delivering enhanced performance (Ism ail & Long, 2009). The rapidly changing global business environment calls for high knowledgeablity on the part of the human resource managers, to function effectively as strategic business partners. According to Inyang (2008a: 61), â€Å"Human resources practitioners need to broaden their horizons, seek more knowledge and information to manage the intellectual capital effectively.This requires people who are multi-skilled, self-responsible, visionary and able to learn, to handle, to lead the organization to success†. The HR practitioner is also expected to develop a new mindset, as he becomes a strategic partner. In fact, to be a strategic partner, â€Å"the HR function must go beyond delivering services, maintaining records, and auditing. It needs to spend time being a member of the management team, doing strategic HR planning and making contributions to organizational design, strategy development, and strategic change† (Lawler III & Mohrman, 2003:4). 31 7. Conclusion The traditional HRM practices, which are concerned with the management of people in an organization, have contributed significantly to organization bottom line.HRM offers traditional and administrative support services in the organization, in terms of staffing, recruitment, training and development, compensation and benefits. It generally concerned itself with attracting, developing and maintaining effective workforce. The emergence of SHRM as a paradigm shift generated more value-added core responsibility, and emphasized the need to integrate HR practices with business strategy. SHRM is a strategic business partner model, which strongly beliefs that critical organizational capabilities or performance behaviors are necessary for the attainment of a particular business strategy or goal. SHRM is a more radical and systematic approach to the management of human capital, placing more emphasis on organizational performance rather than individual performance.It is this approach that help s to create a fit or congruence or integration of HR practices with business strategies that enables the organization to achieve sustained competitive advantage. The RBV of the firm highlights the strategic position of the human capital, as an organizational asset, that contributes significantly to the overall performance of the organization, when adequate investment is made on the human resources. The HR practices must be properly aligned with the strategic goals of the organization. To function as a strategic business partner and a change agent, to successfully handle the emerging challenges of SHRM, the HR practitioner must possess the requisite strategic skills and core competencies.The skills and competencies required include among others, being highly knowledgeable about business and its environment, developing a strategic vision, global operating skills, understanding and applying the ICT regime, organizational effectiveness skills, change management skills and ability to und erstand and manage conflict as well as possess internal consulting skills. References [1] [2] [3] Aitchison, D. (2007). â€Å"HR transformation: Myth or reality†. HROA Europe and sharedpertise forums in association with TPI. Survey Report January 2007. Akhtar, S. , Ding, D. Z . & Ge, G. (2008). â€Å"Strategic HRM practices and their impacts on company performance in Chinese enterprises†.Human Resource Management, 47(1), 15-32 Anderson, K. K. , Cooper, B. K. & Zhu, CJ. 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Milkovich (Eds), Strategic Human Resource Management in the 21st Century (pp. 99-122). London: JAI Press. Metzler, C. A. (1998). â€Å"Charting a new role as strategic business partner†. HR Magazine. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://www. highbeam. com. Niehau s, R. (1995). â€Å"Strategic HRM†. Human Resource Planning. 18 (3), 53+. Retrieved November 9, 2009, from http://www. questia. com/reader/print (1-11). Penrose, E. (1959). â€Å"The theory of the growth of the firm†. Oxford: Blackwell. Pfeffer, J. (1994). â€Å"Competitive advantage through people†. Cambridge, M. A. Harvard Business School Press. Porter, M. (1985). â€Å"Competitive advantage†. New York: Free Press. Purcell, J. , Kinnie, N. , Hutchinson, S. , Rayton, B. , & Stwart, J. (2003). â€Å"Understanding the people and performance link: Unlocking the black box†. London: CIPD. Ramlall, S. J. (2006). â€Å"Strategic HR management creates value at target†. Journal of Organizational Excellence, Spring: 57-62. Rowden, R. W. 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Comparison of Tragic Heroes: Othello and Willy Loman Essay

Tragic heroism dominates many of the plays written in the earlier years of literature. Many of the known authors and playwrights used them in their works to represent their main character. Among the more popular tragic heroes in the literary history are Othello from Othello, the Moor of Venice by William Shakespeare and Willy Loman from Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman. These two characters, although both fit the qualifications of a tragic hero, do so in different ways. In Aristotle’s Poetics, he outlined the characteristics of a tragic hero as follows; first, someone who has a noble standing or who has a high position relative to his culture; he should be great, but not to the point of perfection. Spectators must be able to relate to him as a man, not someone so godly. A fatal character flaw would cause his downfall and the consequences or punishments that he receives for it usually surpass the crime. However, the fall should not be limited to pure loss but may also be an increased awareness, some kind of self-discovery or self-realization or gained self-knowledge. Othello perfectly fit the standards provided above. He was a prominent man being the general and commander of the armed forces of Venice. People respect him and look up to him because of his noble stature. However, as the play progresses, it slowly unveils the character flaws of Othello. His being so trusting of Iago, which was partly because of his military mindset of fully giving total confidence to a comrade, led him to be manipulated easily. He was lured to believe that his wife was having an affair with another man. His jealousy took the better of him, thus he was not able to think clearly. This character flaw pulled him down from the pedestal for it showed that even though he was a very prominent person, he also have some weaknesses just like all humans do. As the story comes to an end, he was overcome by his suspicion of his wife’s dalliance, which made him kill her. It was only after that incident that he realized his foolishness for believing Iago. Thus, before he took his life, he stated â€Å"Speak of one that loved not wisely, but too well, of one not easily jealous but, being wrought, perplexed in an extreme†¦. † (Act V, Scene 2). Too late was his realization of his lack of wisdom and naivete, which led to the tragic ending of the story. Willy Loman, on the other hand, has a different story. He may not be a very prominent person just like Othello, but within the realm of his culture, he is at the higher post. He was a successful businessman; he has his own home, a car, and what he perceived as a wonderful family. He saw himself as someone very important in his family and a cut above his contemporaries. This claim is evident in his statement in Act 1 where he uttered â€Å"I’m the New England man. I’m vital in New England†. This prominence, although self-perceived made him qualify for the first qualification of a tragic hero. His flaws, however, also came from the perception he had of himself. He set a high standard for his son based on what he had accomplished, which the latter failed to achieve. As he got older, he became less effective as a salesman and things began going out of hand. He made major mistakes after another including an affair with another woman, which was discovered by his son making things worse. His faults, however, are not planned but were spontaneously derived from previous misfortunes. In the end, the once very happy and contented Willy Loman became very sad and miserable that he decided to end his life through a car crash. We can see in these two characters the fulfilment of the qualifications for a tragic hero in different ways. Othello, somehow manages to fit in classically while Loman had to achieve it by diving deeper into the criteria. Nevertheless, the main idea of being a tragic hero was met by both, thus they are considered as such. This only goes to show that literature is not limited, which is a good thing because it allows writers to explore different possibilities of meeting set standards.

Bhavnath Temple Case Study

GOSAI NILESH H. DIVISION – A SUB: CASE OF BHAVNATH TEMPLE SUBMITED TO: Dr. D. R. D. Introduction: The case is all about an increasing irrigation facilities after independence but there was certain problems with the removing location of BHAVNATH TEMPLE which is between the dam and people don’t want to change place of temple with that there are some other issue also there. After independence in 1947, the both central & state government want overall economic development. In undivided Bombay province a proposal given to build dam on river. It calculated 4700 million cu. ft.Water to develop 92000 acre of land, In 3 district. To do that 8 villages are totally submerged and resettled at other place. This all require to providing new livelihood to people. The reservoir was to have catchments area of 230 sq. miles. The average rainfall was 34†. In this 1 plan the F. S. L. , was 592 H. F. L. was 596 and R. L. was 601. Directed irrigable area was 19300 acres and the indirect irrigation flow to some 73600acre. It yields 15. 83 lacks revenue per year. Agricultural production increase as 30400 tons. It was 147. 74 lacks. This project was fully feasible in the eyes of government.If plan 1 was accepted than temple was saved by using gates to save from flood. After making 1 proposal government made 2 proposal. In that, if all of three levels rose so that ultimate capacity raise to 1000 million cu. Ft. in that F. S. L. 595 &H. F. L. 606. By doing this the agricultural production increasing and irrigation facilities provide to larger areas. But in 2 plan temple could not be saved but people remained adamant in there demand. IN 1960 state of Bombay bifurcated and now Gujarat PWD department began to think about reopened the plan again.They find this scheme was good for development. The problem is that what should do to become success of this plan. Objectives: †¢ To build the dam, †¢ To increase agricultural production, †¢ Do ultimate overall devel opment Problems: †¢ Temple get submerged, †¢ Religious sentiments, †¢ Opposition by villagers †¢ People get displaced. Constraints: †¢ Location of dam †¢ Religious sentiment can’t be changed. Criteria: †¢ Cost should be minimized †¢ Maximum returns †¢ Minimum people affected †¢ Minimum time in implementation Alternatives: †¢ Plan 1 if no plan 2 †¢ Resettlement of affected people †¢ Wall around the temple Help from religious leader †¢ Convincing people about benefit †¢ Raising the height of temple Suggestion: From all above alternative we compare it with objectives, problem, and criteria we can suggest that to succeeding this scheme government should increasing level of temple by above than flood level with using good construction peeler so ultimately height of temple raised and they saved from flood. By doing so peoples are permit to build dam on river. Contingency plan: If it is not possible to build temple by construction of piller then take help from the religious leader. THANK YOU

Increase Productivity and Safety at Night Shift Research Proposal

Increase Productivity and Safety at Night Shift - Research Proposal Example Production department is the most important section for the successful operation of the business. Business organizations strive on the efficiency and capability of its production team who provide quality and quantity goods and services to the customers of organization. As the demands for the products grow in numbers, it has become necessary for the organizations to operate 24/7 and employ more number of people so that the market demand could be met easily. As Coleman (1995) pointed out that businesses can run 24 hours for various reasons which includes customers demand, can be considered as the most economical option or the process requires it. Even in organizations where the operations run on continuous basis without switching the process, the workload is balanced in every shift so as to increase the efficiency of processing during the night hours. Working on the night shifts is more difficult than the day shift. This is because there is the issue of fatigue and loss of concentratio n that affect quality. Aside this, there are also safety issues that relate to concerns about going to work, staying safe at work and going back home from work, if one is on the night shift. The present research proposes to conduct an intensive study into the measures and facilities that could be improved and developed to increase the safety and production capacity during night shifts Statement of the Problem Why there is a need to study the ill effects of working during night shifts; is a critical and serious question. ... Also, Thorpy & Billiard (2011, p412) identified that many motor accidents that occur before daybreak can be attributed to tired drivers who have worked through the night. In view of these risks associated with night shifts and it’s continuance in manufacturing industries in spite of so many tragic incidents, it is clear that maintaining a night shift enables a manufacturing company to do more and increase production volumes. It is therefore an important element of organizations and must be kept as productive as the daytime shift. The research therefore examines the issues with safety, security and productivity with the night shift and how these issues can be handled by management of a manufacturing entity. Problems with the Night Shift Demand for increased production due to global competition and just in time manufacturing methods have forced most of the companies to adopt 24 hours working schedule in order to stay economically active and meet the consumer demand. Operating in dustrial processes around the clock forces the employees to remain awake at night contrary to their normal biological rhythms resulting in increased fatigue and reduced alertness and productivity (Gupta, 2006). According to Sharman and Sharman (2008) working during night time upsets the body’s natural process and health effects go far beyond sleep deprivation, decreased concentration, creativity short term memory and decision making ability. According to Folkard and Tucker (2003) the number of people at work and nature of their work vary across shifts as long runs were often saved for night shift with reduced supervision of operations. It is further analyzed on the basis of three different studies on real job measures for 24 hour day operated organization

Fluid mechanical Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Fluid mechanical - Coursework Example Looking at those pipes, you might notice that they have different diameters creating an illusion (Kezerashvili & Sapozhnikov 2000, 1). This causes an imbalance when water is put in the thick end, and no water in the thinner opening of the pipe. The construction made in the pipe make the liquid not to come to equilibrium; as a result, the water in the thick end exert weight pushing the water down the thick pipe. The kilogram of water that was situated at the most elevated point on one end moves in the opposite direction to the following side, precisely as a pendulum would when swigged (Kezerashvili & Sapozhnikov 2000, 1). The overbalancing mass of water getaways from the slight end because the channel is so short, it is impractical hold 1 kg of water. On the peculiarity, you comprehend that the surge is redirected to the thick end of the channel, where it extends the measure of time required for the liquid to accomplish concordance while encountering the tight end. The structure will accomplish amicability in the unmistakable measure of time that it takes for the water to pass through the restricted tube. Note: This charm Fountain examination will certainly for two reasons: at first, it relies on upon pneumatic power, which runs out once the first holder gets filled.  Furthermore, the fundamental thing that goes to the second compartment is vaporous pressure and not water. In this manner, it moves the water in the second compartment to the third, yet nothing refills the second holder! No water ever moves into that holder. Munson, B., & Okiishi, T. (2009).Fundamentals of fluid mechanics  (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons. Kezerashvili, R., & Sapozhnikov, A. (2000). Magic Fountain. Retrieved November 13, 2014, from

Movie the Italian Job (2003) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Movie the Italian Job (2003) - Essay Example The job was always successful without a drawback until one of the group member Steve (Edward Norton) gets greedy. He blows Bridger away, leaving the others for al fresco fish chow beneath an alpine lake. Only one person is more marked than Croker and that's the Bridger's daughter, safecracking specialist Stella (Charlize Theron). Still soggy, Croker and the lads return to LA where they enlist her services to take back the gold, and more importantly, stick it to Steve. According to Hamblin (2009), Charlie Crocker (Mark Wahlberg), and his group of thieves pulled off the crime of a lifetime by stealing a safe which was filled with gold bricks of thirty-five million dollars. But in this event, the thing that did not go according to his plan was the possibility of double cross by his own group members. And being cheated by his own group members his main aim was to take revenge of his mentor’s (Donald Sutherland) death. According to his review there are lots of similarities between the movies of 1969 and 2003. Both the characters Charlie Crocker and John Bridger are from the original movie of 1969. In a few cases the action scenes of this movie with three minis are same as the old one. There are similarities were in the moves used in the fights, such as traffic jams as well as in case of chases in a drain. (Hamblin, 2009, 290). The movie The Italian Job of 2003 is a smart funny movie with full of entertainment. Between the action scenes featuring wild boat rides through the canals of Venice, chase scenes involving the coolest little cars on wheels, and an intricately planned act of revenge lies a film filled with some great dialogue and smart acting by all the actors. According to Murray (nd), the movie starts off with a good and highly educated group of thieves pulling off the perfect heist, stealing huge amounts of gold from a strict guarded place in Venice. Till that point, everything was according to the plan, but one group pulls a double cross and therefo re taking out John Bridger (Donald Sutherland), and brains behind the entire group, forced to split up the group vows revenge on traitor Steve (Edward Norton). According to him the movie, takes off on a riotous ride over and under Downtown Los Angeles. The most important point associated with this film that stand out from the standard heist film of 1969, is mainly the attractive choice of casting of the movie, to match the character with actor for even the most minor player. â€Å"The Italian Job† works because all of the actors are totally believable. According to the report published in BBC by Stella Papmichael, the main difference with this movie and the original movie is adds wallop lacking in the original version. In the new movie the revenge adds wallop which is occasionally destabilized by Mark Wahlberg's cosmic anti-presence. In this new version of the movie, Charlize Theron is the key behind driving this movie forward , taking the wheel with quiet confidence. Accordi ng to Papmichael, It's just a shame the flirty cat-and-mouse game between Stella and Steve heads up a cul-de-sac to give way for Croker..The culminating 'big job', with a trio of Mini Coopers incongruously zipping through LA gridlock, has all the audacious mischief of its progenitor. The difference is you don't have to endure an hour of dull cockney banter

The septuagint and it's origins Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The septuagint and it's origins - Research Paper Example It is significant to note that the Septuagint had its emergence or origin in Alexandria (Hengel 25-27). In addition, it was broadly utilized among the Hellenistic Jews. The Greek translation was conducted because many Jews in the empire started to lose their original Hebrew language. The Letter of Aristeas started that about 72 Jews writers were mandated during the rule of Ptolemy Philadelphus to conduct the work of translation. Therefore, the word Septuagint refers to seventy in Latin Language and the scripture is called so to acknowledge the 72 Jews scholars. It is difficult to tell the exact century and place in which the translation was done but renowned Jews scholars such as Aristobulus who lived in the 2nd century asserted that the description of the policy or law into Greek was finished during the rule of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Due to this, it has been acknowledged that the translation commenced during this time. It is recorded in the letter of the Aristeas that when the transl ation was read in front of the Jewish priests, people and princes in Alexandria who identified and praised the excellent conformity of the translation with the original Hebrew. On the other hand, the widely accepted origin of the Septuagint holds that according to the Pentateuch, the Jews people in the 2nd and 3rd century were many in Egypt, particularly in Alexandria in that at one point, they comprised of the two-fifths of the total population (Abraham 55). Gradually, the Jews people stopped using the Hebrew language and began to forget it, which posed a risk of them forgetting the law. However, it became customary for to explain and interpret the law, which was read in the temple or synagogue, and it was usual that after some time, some people zealous for the policy or law should have commenced to collect and compile a Greek translation of the law or the Pentateuch (Mclay 39-42). This process took place in the middle of the 3rd century. It is important to note that as to the othe r Hebrew Scriptures-the historical and prophetical-it was usual that the Jews living in Alexandria were using the translated law or Pentateuch in their church or liturgical services. In addition, the desire to read the remaining scriptures led to the gradual translation into Greek, which had become their original language. This in turn implied that the Hebrew language was diminishing and dying daily. It is not easy to figure out the exact time in which the translations were made but it can be deduced that Pentateuch or law, historical, prophets and other scriptures or books such as hagiographies existed in Greek as early as the 2nd century. It is also difficult to know the exact number of the translators but it is said that they were seventy or seventy tow as stated in the Brassac-Vigouroux narration. On the other hand, the Talmudists argue that the law or Pentateuch was translated by five people. History offers us no precise figure but the scriptures reveal that the authors were di stinct for different scriptures (Wegner 61-4). Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or book is a word applied to refer to the accepted anthology or collection of Jewish scripture that are the common source of the Old Testament scriptures. These books are

Negotiation skills - QUESTIONS 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Negotiation skills - QUESTIONS 2 - Essay Example Avoiding in a conflict situation generally means postponing, showing lack of assertiveness or withdrawing from issues (at present time) in order to deal with them later or in other words showing reluctant behavior in terms of solving problem. However this avoidance may be deliberate in order to come up with the better solution later or for so many reasons (Trainer, 2012, p. 3). Moreover using this technique too much can result in creating a communication gap which further leads towards unhealthy co ordination as both parties are unable to know the stance of each other. Similarly if avoiding is overused it may affect the nature of the decision or stance of the other party. Likewise if avoiding is underused it may result in creating a situation which might hurt individuals feeling as usually discretion is not very much opt by individuals. Furthermore if individual is less likely to follow avoiding policy he is likely to be threatened by various issues and conflicts. Accommodating generally means sacrificing ones interest, goals or motives in order to give preference to others for satisfying their concerns. It can be use for number of reasons for instance if an individual is wrong and feels like correcting himself, or if a boss in a company accommodates employees in order to give them chance so they can learn from their previous mistakes (Trainer, 2012, p. 3). Accommodating if overused can lead towards losing of respect as employees are likely to make mistakes and take employer for granted. Moreover employer may lose his overall control over his employees because of overuse of accommodating factor. However if this factor is underused it may result in creating trouble in so many dimensions, for instance in creating goodwill, realizing, and accepting one’s own mistakes. Compromising is a phase in which both parties understand each other’s point of view and are willing to give up

Answers the question Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Answers the question - Coursework Example All but Kelvin follows him) (Minutes later) (Kelvin opens his car and as he ignites his car, a brown slender woman comes towards him and he stops the engine for a moment) LADY: Hello Kelvin? Do you mind giving me a ride to town? (Kelvin perplexed this beautiful woman knows his name but still happy that he may have got a woman to move around with since he loved having sex with many women) Kelvin. No! No! No! Not at all, I...I will be honoured to give such a pretty lady like u a ride (He opens his car door and goes ahead to hug the woman as he opens for her the passenger’s seat). Lady: My name is Risper from the school of medicine Kelvin: what a lovely name! Am Kelvin from faculty of arts and I live with my parents in Beverly Hills, My father is a branch director of one of the leading technology firms in Silicon valley and my mother is the medical superintendent in the district hospital. Lady: (impressed by what Kelvin had told her) I come from California and I stay in the colle ge’s halls of residence (she pauses a little and looks at Kelvin). Kelvin, can I trust you to keep a secret? Kelvin: (with a heavy American accent) Of course you can dear, am all ears. Lady: I am actually not a student at the college, I run away from home a year ago when I felt I could not handle the pressure from my parents. They always insisted that I should join college to study medicine despite my efforts to convince them I did not like that idea and I was more comfortable being an artist Kelvin: did they really have to do that? Look at what they have done, caused pain and suffering to such an innocent beautiful woman as you (He pulls the car by the roadside) tell me more Lady: I have been living with my cousin in her room for the past one year and she is the one who has been feeding me, I... i... (She starts crying and Kelvin moves closer to her and allows her to lean on his bosom) I have nowhere to go and I cannot go back home now. (Torn on what to do, Kelvin decides to take her to his friend’s house who was a devout Christian and who had been trying to bring Kelvin to church) The character cannot not be said to have strong moral and sexual standards as he loved having sex with different women especially those from college, he would lure them with money and promise of a flashy lifestyle for them to give in to his advances. He was driven by his desire to become a businessperson who was respected all over the country and it was the main reason he came to college, however, the reluctance of his parents to introduce him to the prominent people as he would have wanted always frustrated him. His extroverted nature and his intelligent mind always made him a leader among his peers and endeared him to many of his age mates Kelvin was born in Beverly Hills’ in California by James Studd and wife Sylvia Clinton and was brought up in the same neighbourhood. As a child, he was nicknamed ‘Bullfighter’ as he was a bully in school and he loved teasing other pupils who seemed weaker than he did. As he was growing up, he was adored and loved by his parents as he was the only son and the lastborn in the family, and although his parents loved him, he spent very little time with them and he seemed to be more amused by his play station than his family. Efforts by his parents to create a strong relationship with him bore no

The effect of dividends on stock price Coursework

The effect of dividends on stock price - Coursework Example You must also have -a run of consistent good luck. Sudden wealth and big windfall gains depend more on luck, less on skill and knowledge. J. Paul Getty1 was -one such outstanding example. He became the world's richest man and accumulated a vast fortune of over U.S. $ 2 billion but it took him over fifty years of consistent and steady investing to do so. It would be useful for you to ponder over what he says: "Get-rich-quick schemes just don't work. If they did, then everyone on the face of the Earth would be a millionaire. This holds true for stock market dealings as it does for any other form of business activity. Don't misunderstand me. It is possible to make money and a great deal of money-in. the stock market. But it can't be done overnight or by haphazard buying and selling. The big profits go to the intelligent, careful and patient investor, not to the reckless and overeager speculator." (Navjot 57) In the investment market, the heart of the investment process consists of selection, timing, and price. It is all a question of selecting the right company, buying shares in it at the right time and price, and subsequently selling them at the right time and price. ... That will depend on the following four factors: (i) The amount of money you initially invest; (ii) The period over which the money is invested; (iii) The rate at which the invested capital appreciates in value; and (iv) The income you receive from your invested capital during this period. Therefore, to achieve investment success you should keep these four factors in mind while taking decisions on selection, timing and price. But this is not all. Successful investing goes for beyond selection, timing and price. It involves the setting of personal investment objectives, formulating an investment plan and adopting a suitable investment strategy. The overall objective of every investor is to make money. To go further, it is to make of every investor is to make money. To go further, it is to make money at a rate that beats the rate of inflating. In other words, the board objective of all investment is to increase, or at least preserve, the purchasing power of invested capital. For a successful investor it is necessary to have a well-defined plan, backed by a carefully conceived investment strategy. This will help you to keep your impulses under control and reduce the subjective element in your investment decisions. A good investment plan is by itself not enough to guarantee investment success. Sometimes, even the best investment plans have flaws, and go awry when implemented in practice. But the fact that you have a plan will stack the odds in your favor and give you a fair chance to win. A well-conceived plan will improve your average results and raise your general level of performance. INVESTMENT PRINCIPLES The art of successful investment rests on the foundation of certain basic principles, which generally hold good for all times and places. Moreover, these

Sociological Principle of Language Teaching Essay Example for Free

Sociological Principle of Language Teaching Essay A theory of language based on J. L. Austins How to Do Things with Words (second edition, 1975), the major premise of which is that language is as much, if not more, a mode of action as it is a means of conveying information. As John Searle puts it, All linguistic communication involves linguistic acts. The unit of linguistic communication is not, as has generally been supposed, the symbol, word, or sentence, or even the token of the symbol, word, or sentence, but rather the production or issuance of the symbol or word or sentence in the performance of a speech act. Meaning, then, should be regarded as a species within the genus intending-tocommunicate, since language itself is highly complex, rule-governed intentional behavior. A theory of language is part of a theory of action. The basic emphasis of speech act theory is on what an utterer (U) means by his utterance (x) rather than what x means in a language (L). As H.P. Grice notes, meaning is a kind of intending, and the hearers or readers recognition that the speaker or writer means something by x is part of the meaning of x. In contrast to the assumptions of structuralism (a theory that privileges langue, the system, over parole, the speech act), speech act theory holds that the investigation of structure always presupposes something about meanings, language use, and extralinguistic functions In How to Do Things with Words, Austin commences by enunciating a reasonably clear-cut distinction between constative and performative utterances. According to him, an utterance is constative if it describes or reports some state of affairs such that one could say its correspondence with the facts is either true or false. Performatives, on the other hand, do not describe or report or constate anything at all, are no t true or false. . . . The uttering of the sentence is, or is part of. the doing of an action, which again would not normally be described as saying something. Marrying, betting, bequeathing, umpiring, passing sentence, christening, knighting, blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, and so forth involve performatives. The attitude of the person performing the linguistic act his thoughts, feelings, or intentions is of paramount importance. Whereas the constative utterance is true or false, the performative utterance is felicitous or infelicitous, sincere or insincere, authentic or inauthentic, well invoked or misinvoked. An I do at a marriage ceremony is insincere and misinvoked if the utterer is already married and has no intention of abiding by the conditions of the contract. Austin divides the linguistic act into three componentsLocutionary Act: In linguistics and the philosophy of mind, a locutionary act is the performance of an utterance, and hence of a speech act. The term equally refers to the surface meaning of an utterance because, according to J. L. Austins posthumous How To Do Things With Words, a speech act should be analyzed as alocutionary act (i.e. the actual utterance and its ostensible meaning, comprising phonetic, phatic and rhetic acts corresponding to the verbal, syntactic and semantic aspects of any meaningful utterance), as well as an illocutionary act (the semantic illocutionary force of the utterance, thus its real, intended meaning), and in certain cases a further perlocutionary act (i.e. its actual effect, whether intended or not). For example, my saying to you Dont go into the water (a locutionary act with distinct phonetic, syntactic and semantic features) counts as warning you not to go into the water (an illocutionary act), and if you heed my warning I have thereby succeeded in persuading you not to go into the water (a perlocutionary act). This taxonomy of speech acts was inherited by John R. Searle, Austins pupil at Oxford and subsequently an influential exponent of speech act theory. Illocutionary Act: Illocutionary act is a term in linguistics introduced by John L. Austin in his investigation of the various aspects of speech acts. We may sum up Austins theory of speech acts with the following example. In uttering the locution Is there any salt? at the dinner table, one may thereby perform the illocutionary act of requesting salt, as well as the distinct locutionary act of uttering the interrogatory sentence about the presence of salt, and the further perlocutionary act of causing somebody to hand one the salt. The notion of an illocutionary act is closely connected with Austins doctrine of the socalled performative and constative utterances: an utterance is performative just in case it is issued in the course of the doing of an action (1975, 5), by which, again, Austin means the performance of an illocutionary act (Austin 1975, 6 n2, 133). According to Austins original exposition in How to Do Things With Words, an illocutionary act is an act (1) for the performance of which I must make it clear to some other person that the act is performed (Austin speaks of the securing of uptake), and (2) the performance of which involves the production of what Austin calls conventional consequences as, e.g., rights, commitments, or obligations (Austin 1975, 116f., 121, 139). Thus, for example, in order to make a promise I must make clear to my audience that the act I am performing is a promise, and in the performance of the act I will be undertaking an obligation to do the promised thing: so promising is an illocutionary act in the present sense. Since Austins death, the term has been defined differently by various authors. Perlocutionary Act: A perlocutionary act (or perlocutionary effect) is a speech act, as viewed at the level of its psychological consequences, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do or realize something. This is contrasted with locutionary and illocutionary acts (which are other levels of description, rather than different types of speech acts). Unlike the notion of locutionary act, which describes the linguistic function of an utterance, a perlocutionary effect is in some sense external to the performance. It may be thought of, in a sense, as the effect of the illocutionary act via the locutionary act. Therefore, when examining perlocutionary acts, the effect on the hearer or reader is emphasized. As an example, consider the following utterance: By the way, I have a CD of Debussy; would you like to borrow it? Its illocutionary function is an offer, while its intended perlocutionary effect might be to impress the listener, or to show a friendly attitude, or to encourage an interest in a particular type of music. The Ethnography of communication (EOC) The Ethnography of communication (EOC) is a method of discourse analysis in linguistics, which draws on the anthropological field of ethnography. Unlike ethnography proper, though, it takes both language and culture to be constitutive as well as constructive. In their book Qualitative Communication Research Methods, communications scholars Thomas R. Lindlof and Bryan C. Taylor (2002) explain Ethnography of communication conceptualizes communication as a continuous flow of information, rather than as a segmented exchange of messages (p. 44). According to Deborah Cameron (2001), EOC can be thought of as the application of ethnographic methods to the communication patterns of a group. Littlejohn Foss (2005) recall that Dell Hymes suggests that â€Å"cultures communicate in different ways, but all forms of communication require a shared code, communicators who know and use the code, a channel, a setting, a message form, a topic, and an event created by transmission of the message (p. 3 12). EOC can be used as a means by which to study the interactions among members of a specific culture or, what Gerry Philipsen (1975) calls a speech community. Speech communities create and establish their own speaking codes/norms. Philipsen (1975) explains that â€Å"Each community has its own cultural values about speaking and these are linked to judgments of situational appropriateness† (p. 13). The meaning and understanding of the presence or absence of speech within different communities will vary. Local cultural patterns and norms must be understood for analysis and interpretation of the appropriateness of speech acts situated within specific communities. Thus, â€Å"the statement that talk is not anywhere valued equally in all social contexts suggests a research strategy for discovering and describing cultural or subcultural differences in the value of speaking. Speaking is one among other symbolic resources which are allocated and distributed in social situations according to distinctive culture patterns† (Philipsen, 1975, p. 21). General aims of this qualitative research method include: being able to discern which communication acts and/or codes are important to different groups, what types of meanings groups apply to different communication events, and how group members learn these codes provides insight into particular communities. This additional insight may be used to enhance communication with group members, make sense of group members’ decisions, and distinguish groups from one another, among other things. ECO studies, according to Lindlof and Taylor (2002), produce highly detailed analysis of communication cod es and their moment-to-moment functions in various contexts. In these analyses, speech communities are constituted in local and continuous performances of cultural and moral matters (p. 45). The innateness hypothesis The innateness hypothesis is a linguistic theory of language acquisition which holds that at least some linguistic knowledge exists in humans at birth. [1]Facts about the complexity of human language systems, the universality of language acquisition, the facility that children demonstrate in acquiring these systems, and the comparative performance of adults in attempting the same task are all commonly invoked in support. The idea that there may be an age by which this learning must be accomplished is known as the critical period hypothesis. Noam Chomsky is responsible for the innateness hypothesis. Hilary Putnam published a critique of the innateness hypothesis entitled The Innateness Hypothesis and Explanatory Models in Linguistics. Interlanguage Pragmatics The type of language (or linguistic system) used by second- and foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a target language. Interlanguage pragmatics is the study of the ways in which nonnative speakers acquire, comprehend, and use linguistic patterns (or speech acts) in a second language. Interlanguage theory is generally credited to Larry Selinker, an American professor of applied linguistics, whose article Interlanguage appeared in the January 1972 issue of the journal International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. Interference of Mother Tongue in the acquisition of second language The second language learning environment encompasses everything the language learner hears and sees in the new language. It may include a wide variety of situations such as exchanges in restaurants and stores, conversations with friends, reading street signs and newspapers, as well as classroom activities, or it may be very sparse, including only language classroom activities and a few books.Regardless of the learning environment, the learner’s goal is mastery of the target language. The learner begins the task of learning a second language from point zero (or close to it) and, through the steady accumulation of the mastered entities of the target language, eventually amasses them in quantities sufficient to constitute a particular level of proficiency (Dulay, Burt Krashen, 1982 and Ellis, 1984). This characterisation of language learning entails the successful mastery of steadily accumulating structural entities and organising this knowledge into coherent structures which lead to effective communication in the target language (Rutherford, 1987). If this is the case, then we would expect that well-formed accurate and complete target language structures would, one after another, emerge on the learner’s path towards eventual mastery of the language. If the learner went on to master the language, we could, in principle, tabulate the expansion of his/her repertoire up to the point where all of the well-formed structures of the target language had been accounted for (Beardsmore, 1982 and Hoffman, 1991). In reality this is not the case. Second language learners appear to accumulate structural entities of the target language but demonstrate difficulty in organising this knowledge into appropriate, coherent structures. There appears to be a significant gap between the accumulation and the organisation of the knowledge. This then raises a critical question what kinds of language do second language learners produce in speaking and writing? When writing or speaking the target language (L2), second language learners tend to rely on their native language (L1) structures to produce a response. If the structures of the two languages are distinctly different, then one could expect a relatively high frequency of errors to occur in L2, thus indicating an interference of L1 onL2 (Dechert, 1983 and Ellis, 1997). References ï‚ · ï‚ · http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_act http://books.google.com/books?hl=enlr=id=iJ3Y_wkkwa8Coi=fndpg=PR7dq=sociolo gical+principles+of+language+teachingots=FC11b_8K7Jsig=Rmp2yakmAdrsBi3Faoy19j _T7I#v=onepageq=so ï‚ · http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1052context=barbara_joh nstonese iredir=1referer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Furl%3Fsa%3Dt%26rct%3Dj%26q %3Dethnography%2Bof%2Bcommunication%26source%3Dweb%26cd%3D2%26cad%3Dr ja%26ved%3D0CCoQFjAB%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fworks.bepress.com%252F cgi%252Fviewcontent.cgi%253Farticle%253D1052%2526contex ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/iej/articles/v1n1/bhela/bhela.pdf http://www.academicjournals.org/AJPC/PDF/Pdf2009/Sept/Sinha%20et%20al.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-language_attrition#Interference_theory http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utterance International Education Journal Vol 1, No 1, 1999(http://iej.cjb.net)

Parts of a Newspaper Essay Example for Free

Parts of a Newspaper Essay A .Headline- the words are printed in a large type across the top or a news paper article to catch the reader’s attention B. Dateline- the words at the beginning of a news article that tell when and where the story was written. C. News article- in a news paper, a story about an event that has just taken place. D. Feature Article – a detailed report on a person, an issue, or an event. E. Editor – one of the people who run a newspaper F. Editorial – an article in which the Editors give their opinion on an important issue. G. International – tells you about the news across the continents. H. Business tells you the things that are happening business-wise. (media and advertising, world business, economy, stock markets, mutual funds, etc. I. Technology – contains things that are going in and out of style in the technology world. J. Science – contains things that are happening in medical world. (e.g. outer space, environment, etc.) K. Health – talks about modern day human health and health problems. I. Sports – talks about games. (ball games, Olympic games, SEA games, etc.) M. Education – contains the trend n the world of education. (students’ Achievement, schools, etc.) N. Weather – contains the weather for the day O. Obituaries – contains people who passed away and their death should be mentioned to the community. P. Classified Ads – contains open jobs and job description plus job requirements. Other parts include: Cover Page Story, Table of Contents, Editors Pool, Entertainment, etc. Commentary is a series of giving explanations and interpretations Guidelines in Writing a Commentary: There is no recipe for doing commentaries. The elements that make up a successful commentary tend to vary and will depend on the nature of the text and on particular approaches to it. Nor is there a single ‘right answer’ to any passage for commentary. A good commentary may well consist of a number of pertinent questions raised by the passage. However, certain tendencies should be avoided: 1. A commentary should not be prà ©cis of the passage. Summary and description are not commentary. 2. A commentary should not dwell on the context of the passage and should in general avoid venturing into other parts of the work from which the extract is taken. IT should likewise avoid excursions into the wider oeuvre of the author 3. It is not necessary to write out quotations from the passage this can waste valuable time. The following points should be considered: 1. A commentary benefits by paying close attention to the use of language. 2. 2. IT is important to pay attention to the means of representation and to address not only the quest of WHAT is said but of HOW it is said. 3. There is no need to ascribe to the text a definitive meaning or structure. It is fine to problematize the text. Critique – is a method of disciplined systematic analysis of a written or oral discourse. Critique is commonly understood as fault finding and negative judgement, but I can also involve merit recognition, and in the philosophical tradition. It also means a methodical practice of doubt. The contemporary sense of critique has been largely influenced by the enlightenment critique of prejudice and authority, which championed the emancipation and autonomy from religion and political authorities. Critique is an accepted format of written or oral debate. Stating a Purpose: * It is important to state your purpose clearly at the beginning of your talk. Here are some ways to do this: * *talk about – to speak about a subject Example: I’d like to talk about our plans for the new site. * *report on – to tell you about what has been dine. * Example: I’ll be reporting on the progress we have made since last meeting. * *take a look at – examine * Example: First, let’s take a loo at what we have achieved so far. * *tell you about – to give someone information or instruction. * Example: Our reporters will tell you about what is happening in Visayas. * *show – to explain something by doing * Example: The object of the orientation is to show you how to put the theory into practice. * Outline – to give the main facts or information * Example: Give me an outline of the new policy. * *Fill you in on – to give extra or missing information * Example: I will fill you in on the details you just missed during the meeting. * *Give an overview of – to give a short description with general information but with no details. * *highlight – draw attention to or emphasize important facts. * *discuss – to talk about ideas or opinions on subject in more detail