El boletín de visas para el mes agosto de 2019

El boletà ­n de visas para el mes agosto de 2019 El boletà ­n de visas, que actualiza cada mes el Departamento de Estado, es fundamental  para las personas que estn esperando por su tarjeta de residencia permanente en determinadas categorà ­as de solicitudes por familia o por trabajo, ya que significa que la espera ha terminado y se inicia la fase final de la tramitacià ³n. En este artà ­culo se explica para quà © tipo de peticiones de tarjeta de residencia, tambià ©n conocida como green card,  es relevante el boletà ­n de visas y quà © hacer si por edad o por matrimonio se cambia de categorà ­a. Asimismo, se informa sobre la  diferencia entre dates for filing y   final action date, cul es el boletà ­n de visas actual y  cà ³mo  entenderlo. Finalmente, quà © esperar una vez que se inicia la fase final de la tramitacià ³n de la solicitud de la green card. Para quà © peticiones es importante el boletà ­n de visas El boletà ­n de visas es relevante para todas las categorà ­as de peticià ³n de tarjetas de residencia permanente por familia o por trabajo para las que existe un là ­mite mximo que puede ser aprobado por aà ±o fiscal. En otras palabras, esto quiere decir que  no aplica a las peticiones de ciudadanos estadounidenses para sus hijos solteros menores de 21 aà ±os, cà ³nyuges o padres, ya que la ley no establece un là ­mite para esas solicitudes. Estas peticiones se tramitan sin espera y, en la actualidad, el proceso desde su inicio al fin es, aproximadamente, de doce meses. Por el contrario el boletà ­n de visa a aplica a las siguientes solicitudes de peticiones por familia: de ciudadano para hijo soltero mayor de 21 aà ±os, que se conoce como F1de residente permanente para cà ³nyuge y/o hijo soltero menor de 21 aà ±os, que se conoce como F2Ade residente permanente para hijo soltero mayor de 21 aà ±os, que se conoce F2Bde ciudadano para hijo casado de cualquier edad, que se conoce como F3de ciudadano para hermano, que se conoce como F4 Es posible cambiar de categorà ­a. Esto se debe a que la demora puede ser muy larga  y las circunstancias personales de la persona pedida o del solicitante  cambian. Por ejemplo, si un residente permanente solicita a un hijo soltero mayor de 21 aà ±os y durante la espera el residente se convierte en ciudadano por naturalizacià ³n, sucederà ­a que el hijo pedido pasarà ­a de estar en la categorà ­a F2B a ser un F1. Es conveniente notificar  estos cambios al USCIS mediante una carta.   Adems, tener en cuenta que algunos cambios implican que la solicitud de los papeles no va a llegar a buen resultado. Por ejemplo, si un residente pide a un hijo soltero y à ©ste se casa durante la espera de los papeles, la peticià ³n se convierte en nula.   Finalmente, el boletà ­n de visas aplica en todas las categorà ­as de peticiones de tarjeta de residencia por trabajo. Diferencias entre Dates for filing y Final action date y por quà © es importante En el boletà ­n de visas hay dos tipos de fecha. En primer lugar, las que aplican a las personas  que pueden ajustar su estatus y que siguen lo que el gobierno llama Dates for filing. Eso quiere decir que ya pueden presentar los papeles para el ajuste cuando la  fecha de prioridad de su solicitud  es ms antigua que la fecha seà ±alada para su categorà ­a en el epà ­grafe  dates for filing. Sin embargo, tener en cuenta que la aplicacià ³n no puede ser aprobada mientras la fecha de prioridad de su solicitud no sea ms antigua que la fecha para su categorà ­a consignada bajo el epà ­grafe final action date. En otras palabras, los migrantes que estn ya en Estados Unidos deben estar atentos a esas 2 fechas, la primera, para presentar los papeles del ajuste de estatus, y la segunda para calcular cundo la tramitacià ³n final tendr lugar y asà ­ obtener su green card.   Entonces,  ¿por quà © es importante el date for filing si no se puede obtener la green card hasta que llega la fecha del final action? Pues porque si se est en Estados Unidos y se puede ajustar el estatus, en el momento en que se  presentan esos papeles se adquieren ciertos derechos, como la posibilidad de aplicar por un permiso de trabajo o de solicitar una autorizacià ³n para viajar fuera de Estados Unidos y regresar que se conoce como advance parole. Por el contrario, los emigrantes fuera de Estados Unidos que siguen lo que se conoce como un procedimiento consular sà ³lo deben estar atentos al final action date. Cuando llega esa fecha para su categorà ­a  es el Centro Nacional de Visas quien inicia la tramitacià ³n de los à ºltimos pasos de la peticià ³n de la green card. Boletà ­n de visas agosto  2019. Fechas de corte final action Categorà ­a F1, hijos/as de ciudadano solteros y mayores de 21 aà ±os Mà ©xico: 1 de agosto de 1996Resto Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: 1 de julio de 2012 Categorà ­a F2A, cà ³nyuges de residentes y sus hijos solteros menores de 21 Mà ©xico: corrienteResto Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: corriente Categorà ­a F2B, hijos de residente solteros mayores de 21 Mà ©xico: 1 de junio de 1998Resto Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: 1 de enero de 2014 Categorà ­a F3, hijos casados de ciudadano Mà ©xico: 1 de diciembre de 1995Resto de Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: 22 de junio de 2007 Categorà ­a F4, hermanos de ciudadano Mà ©xico: 1 de enero de 1997Resto de Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: 1 de octubre de 2006 Categorà ­a por trabajo Primera, Tercera y Otros Todos los paà ­ses: 1 de julio de 2016 Categorà ­as por trabajo Segunda Todos los paà ­ses: 1 de enero de 2017 Categorà ­as por trabajo Cuarta y Trabajadores Religiosos Mà ©xico: 1 de julio de 2016El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras: 1 de julio de 2016Resto de los paà ­ses de Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: fecha corriente Boletà ­n de visas agosto 2019 Fechas de corte dates for filing Categorà ­a F1, hijos solteros de ciudadano mayores de 21 aà ±os Mà ©xico: 1 de noviembre de 1999Resto de Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: 1 de marzo de 2013 Categorà ­a F2A, cà ³nyuges de residentes e hijos solteros menores de 21 Mà ©xico: 1 de junio de 2019Resto de Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: 1 de junio de 2019 Categorà ­a F2B, hijos solteros de residentes mayores de 21 Mà ©xico: 1 de febrero de 1999Resto de Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: 1 de septiembre de 2014 Categorà ­a F3, hijos casados de ciudadano Mà ©xico: 15 de julio de 2000Resto de Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: 22 de diciembre de 2007 Categorà ­a F4, hermanos de ciudadanos Mà ©xico: 15 de diciembre de 1998Resto de Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a: 15 de diciembre de 2006 Categorà ­a por trabajo Primera Todos los paà ­ses hispanohablantes: 1 de septiembre de 2018 Categorà ­a por trabajo Segunda, Tercera y Otros Todos los paà ­ses hispanohablantes: fecha corriente Categorà ­a por trabajo Cuarta y Trabajadores religiosos Mà ©xico: fecha corrienteEl Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras: 1 de septiembre de 2016Otros paà ­ses hispanohablantes: fecha corriente Cà ³mo entender el boletà ­n de visas Lo primero es tener a mano la fecha de prioridad que es el dà ­a en el que se presentà ³ la solicitud. A continuacià ³n, determinar  si la peticià ³n es de familia o por trabajo y si aplica el final date (persona para la que se piden los papeles est fuera de EE.UU) o, por el contrario, el dates for filing (persona para la que se piden los papeles est en EE.UU. y puede ajustar su estatus). El paso siguiente es determinar la categorà ­a de la persona pedida. En el caso de familia, como se explicà ³ anteriormente, se puede ser F1, F2A, F2B, F3 o F4. En el caso de peticiones de trabajo se puede ser categorà ­as 1, 2, 3, 4, Otros o Religiosos.   Una vez que se conocen todos los datos, corresponde buscar el el bloque de informacià ³n que aplica. Por ejemplo, si el hijo casado de un ciudadano es la persona pedida y est en Estados Unidos y puede pedir un ajuste de estatus, le interesa el dates for filing por familia. Luego tendrà ­a que mirar su categorà ­a. En el caso del ejemplo, un hijo casado de ciudadano es un F3 y a continuacià ³n verificar la columna segà ºn su paà ­s de nacimiento, si es de Mà ©xico es una, y si es de otro paà ­s, la otra. Finalmente, mirar su fecha de prioridad y compararla con la fecha del boletà ­n de visa. En el boletà ­n de visas de mayo de 2018 para un F3 de Mà ©xico que puede ajustar su estatus, la fecha de corte es 8 de septiembre de 2006. Si su fecha de prioridad fuera ms antigua, eso significarà ­a que podrà ­a presentar los papeles para el ajuste de estatus. Otro ejemplo distinto serà ­a el de un hermano de ciudadano que est esperando fuera de Estados Unidos y es de Colombia. En este caso se tratarà ­a de  un final action por familia. Adems, como es un hermano de ciudadano serà ­a un F4 y, como no es de Mà ©xico, tendrà ­a que fijarse en la columna de Resto de Latinoamà ©rica y Espaà ±a. La fecha de corte para esa categorà ­a para mayo de 2018 es 8 de enero de 1998. Si tuviera una fecha de prioridad ms antigua, eso querrà ­a decir que en unas semanas el Centro Nacional de Visas le contactar para pedirle papeles para iniciar ya la tramitacià ³n final hacia la green card. Quà © pasa cuando llega la fecha de corte del boletà ­n de visas Cuando la fecha de prioridad de una persona es ms antigua que la fecha de corte de su categorà ­a que aparece en el boletà ­n de visas se inicia el proceso final para la sacar green card. A partir de ese momento puede estimarse que las gestiones restantes se demorarn, aproximadamente, medio aà ±o. En los trmites a hacer destacan la presentacià ³n de las planillas y documentos de affidavit of support, es decir, sostenimiento econà ³mico por parte de patrocinador. Es de interà ©s conocer cà ³mo  afectan las deudas o el mal crà ©dito en las peticiones de green card. Tambià ©n es el momento de realizar el examen mà ©dico y de presentarse para la gestià ³n de los datos biomà ©tricos, incluidos sacar una fotografà ­a y permitir la toma de las huellas dactilares. Causas por las que la peticià ³n de la green card no es aprobada La mayorà ­a de las peticiones de green card son aprobadas, sin embargo, la peticià ³n puede ser negada despuà ©s de todos los aà ±os de espera.  Estas son 42 causas de rechazo de la solicitud de residencia permanente. En el caso de que se diera la negacià ³n, es importante entender la causa para saber si es una negativa definitiva o, por el contrario, es posible encontrar una solucià ³n legal. Adems, es fundamental entender que no importa que el USCIS hubiera  aprobado inicialmente la peticià ³n comunicndolo en el NOA2. Eso no significa que la green card estuviera ya  aprobada sino que, simplemente, se dio  la condicià ³n para poder pedirla, es decir, la relacià ³n entre el patrocinador y patrocinado. Dà ³nde encontrar informacià ³n   Durante la tramitacià ³n de la green card es posible  obtener informacià ³n sobre su  gestià ³n, pedir ayuda o denunciar un fraude en  telà ©fonos que brindan informacià ³n  migratoria. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal para ningà ºn caso migratorio.

Working without Trade Unions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Working without Trade Unions - Essay Example Trade unionism has been in existence in the UK for more than 200 years, as illegal associations at first but gained legal recognition later (Trade Unions 1980). In 1978, statistics revealed that membership with numerous trade unions total to around 13 million workers (Trade Unions 1980). Unions existing at present serve the interests of particular type of workers or industry (Theses on the Trade n.d.). Through the unions, the workers can bargain with the employers to grant them increases in wages or salaries, specific working hours, benefits, or day-off from work. Negative Impact of Trade Union Unionism was primarily established to protect the interests of the workers. However, it has also been used by workers to blackmail employers. Running a company would entail a lot of factors to consider and has to maintain a certain margin of profit in order to survive the competition. Workers and employees though would want to get more from their employers by using various legal modes to get m ore benefits. Thus, at a slight movement in the economy or inflation, they would lay down their demands to the companies. There is a collective bargaining agreement or CBA that governs the relationship of employers and workers. The CBA is a contract of labour between the company and the workers. It exists at a certain period of time after which, it has to be renegotiated by both parties. At such renegotiation, the workers present their new demands which the employer may or may not concede. At the renewal of the CBA contract, the workers would push hard so that their demands will be granted by the employer. Companies that operate well and earn more profits may grant the economic demands of the workers. However, with the erratic economic conditions resulting from the recent global slump that affected banking and financial institutions, as well as several industries, CBA renegotiation or too much demand from the workers can tilt the operations of companies. Radical or extreme unionism that tends to disrupt company operations is bad for the economy and the company. It also fosters unhealthy employee-employer relationship that breeds distrust on the part of both parties. According to Naylor and Santoni (2003, cited in Radulescu & Robson 2006), there would be lesser foreign investments in a country where the bargaining power of trade unions on the aspect of wage is strong. There are studies though that do not support this position. Cooke (1997, cited in Radulescu & Robson 2006) and Cooke and Noble (1998, cited in Radulescu & Robson 2006) said that multinational firms in the US tend to invest in countries with decentralised wage bargaining process, and veer away from strong trade unionism. The Workplace Employee Relations Survey revealed that from 1990 to 1998, companies with unions undergo more closures than plants without unions (Millward, Forth & Bryson, 2001). Generally, companies without unions boomed at an average of 1.4 percent per year within the same period (Millward, Forth & Bryson, 2001). In contrast, firms with unions had been shrinking at an average of 1.8 percent yearly (Millward, Forth & Bryson, 2001). Addison and Belfield (2002) said that the prevailing trend seen in unionised companies is its slowed effect upon employment growth. UKs 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Panel Survey (WER-PS), lasting for eight years, that contained around 50 percent of the 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (original companies surveyed totals 2,016) revealed that firms that have labour unions existing for a very long time have weak labour productivity (Addison & Belfield 2002). On the

Questions on Laws in UK Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Questions on Laws in UK - Assignment Example An example of this is the Dutch Bureau of Agricultural Land Management which is responsible for the buying of plots of a farmland in rural areas. This organization, as existing shareholders also enjoys pre-emptive rights over the purchase of all such land. Another example is the Flemish Land Company in Belgium who are entitled to override other candidates and buy out farmland should it be up for sale. (OECD, 1998, p.22) b) There are certain exceptions or disapplication of pre-emption rights. They are as follows. The right of pre-emption is not applicable to the sale of treasury shares, held by the company, i.e. issue of equity shares as given by section 560(2) (b) of the Companies Act 2006. Since Treasury shares are bonds or gifts of the government, no pre-emptive rights may be applied to them. If the directors of a company are given the power to allot equity shares by an article of the government or by a special resolution adopted by the concerned company (as stated in section 561 o f the Companies Act), the pre-emption will not apply. Even if it does apply, the allotment of equity shares will be done with some modifications as per the directors’ decisions. ... It is advisable for a company to take its own decisions for optimality. A company may decide that the pre-emption rights will not apply to a specified allotment of shares or it shall apply with some modifications stated in the resolution. The company may do this by putting a special resolution into effect. (Companies Act 2006, Elizabeth II, Part 46, n.d, p.276) If the resolution of the company benefits it and all its shareholders, it this move is welcome but if it is taken due to personal grudges between members of the management, it will lead to injustice and unfairness and harm the company. Answer: 2 a) â€Å"A Business Angel investor is a high-net-worth individual, who typically provides capital, in the form of debt or equity from his or her own funds to a small private business owned and operated by someone else who is neither a friend nor a family member†. (Talmor & Vasvari, 2011, p.16.1) A Venture Capitalist, on the other hand, is â€Å"not only a financier but also eit her an intelligent evaluator who performs due diligence on ventures, a venture’s partner who can add value to the venture, or both†. (Cumming, 2010, p.299) There are some advantages enjoyed by the Business Angels over Venture Capitalists. They are given as follows. i) The transaction costs incurred by business angels are much less than the transaction cost of venture capitalists. The transaction cost for business angels lies between the ranges of $100,000-2,000,000 whereas that for venture capitalists is higher than $2,000,000. ii) The operations of business angels are geographically more dispersed than those of venture capitalists. The existence of venture capitalists is limited to a few areas where there are many

Apple Inc Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Apple Inc - Case Study Example In fact, it contributes to over 50% of Apple’s bottom line and with the sales of its iPhone 5 surpassing that of the iPhone 4s, the company’s market cap increased significantly. Secondly, the Apple Dividend announced in March of 2012 made its stock more attractive to income-searching retail investors, despite its small yield. However, income fund managers found its $2.65 quarterly dividend more important as the income funds require that the investments must provide income (Sutherland, 2012: p52). Having a dividend made it possible for more investors to buy its stock, which increased its market cap. In addition, although Apple’s stocks have been fluctuating, its fundamentals have stayed the same with over $100 billion in cash reserves and no debts. This ensures that investors see it as a safe bet that will climb again. Apple was able to identify market trends and capitalize on them through various means. With a diverse range of stylish products, Apple capitalized on the fact that consumers wanted to be different. The iPhone and the iPad were released after Apple recognized the high demand for computers and phones but that most products on the market looked the same with similar functionalities (Treacy, 2012: p60). Another reason for Apple’s ability to capitalize on identified market trends is its dynamic business plan, which is always set to resonate with what the market wants. By changing the company’s name to Apple Inc from Apple Computer, the company identified the need for a phone with computer functionalities and broadened their spectrum. Apple was also able to identify the fact that music retail outlets were becoming popular and that outsourcing this capability was not giving them what they wanted (Treacy, 2012: p60). ... By opening a retail store, they were able to capitalize on consumers needs for a retail outlet on their phones. Apple was able to achieve global success by leveraging brand loyalty. By taking their business to emerging markets with minimal penetration of smartphones but where their brand was already known due to mass media, the company opened up new opportunities for developers in those markets (Treacy, 2012: p72). In addition, by hiring employees from those countries and from diverse fields, including artists and musicians, they were able to create unique and different perspectives from those countries. Apple also built relationships with its customers in various regions of the world by embracing social media and the internet, which meant that people in these new regions saw Apple as a transparent and trustworthy company. In addition, they also used movement marketing, in which they marketed what Apple believed in, contending that they sought to bring personal experience of computin g to consumers across the world via innovation (Treacy, 2012: p73). By leveraging brand loyalty, Apple consumers have overlooked glitches as they have emotional connections with their products. However, in order for Apple to gain market share across the world, various companies also had to lose market share and the most affected company was Microsoft. By combining most of what Microsoft offered, including a phone, search engine, office, and operating systems, Apple was able to offer consumers a product that was more appealing (Treacy, 2012: p91). By doing this, Apple was also able to grow various market segments. One of them was the smartphone market, which, although still stagnant at 3%, has pushed its competitors to

Asymmetry and Polymorphism of Hybrid Male Sterility

Asymmetry and Polymorphism of Hybrid Male Sterility Kimberly Woosley Critical Review: Asymmetry and Polymorphism of Hybrid Male Sterility During the Early Stages of Speciation in House Mice In this study, the researchers sought to determine the genetic cause of male sterility in house mice when there was interbreeding among different but related species. The researchers took two breeds of two species of house mice, musculus and domesticus, and cross-bred wild-type with classic inbred type, from the laboratory, and wild-type with wild-type. They then conducted several generations of directional and reciprocal crosses and compared body weight, testis weight, motility and sperm count. These data were analyzed to determine sterility in the male offspring of the F1 generations. The researchers crossed same species but different breed mice as a control for the expected F1 offspring fertility. They then did eight crosses of the different breeds varying the maternal and paternal parentage. After all crosses were complete they let the mice grow to maturity at approximately 60 days. The researchers weighed the mice, they then dissected them to get the weight of the testes and used histology to examine the seminiferous tubules and spermatogenesis to determine sterility. The results of their study showed a decrease in fertility of the hybrid mice except for when a domesticus female was mated with a musculus male. In those two crosses, the hybrids showed similar or increased body weight, testes weight, motility, and sperm count when musculusPWK was the paternal mate regardless of which breed of domesticus was used. In the other six crosses, the F1 offspring all had decreased testes weight, decreased sperm count, and no motile sperm. The researchers then crossed the F1 males of the intrabred domesticusLEWES x WSB with the musculusPWK female and the F1 males of the intrabred musculusPWK x CZECH with the domesticusLEWES. Comparing the two, the researchers noted when the female domesticusLEWES was mated with the male musculus with only half the genes coming from musculusPWK the F1 males still showed an increase in testes weight and sperm count over the musculusPWK female from the first cross. Their results showed that there is a combination of genetic factors at play and that the musculus X chromosome has a large effect on the fertility of the F1 generations. The results varied in some crosses indicating that other loci were involved in the interference of spermatogenesis. However, they were unable to determine exactly which genes were epistatic on male reproductive growth and fertility. They did use their finding to infer polymorphism on autosomal traits when combined with some X, Y traits in certain breed crossings. The researchers acknowledge that this study was fixed on male sterility and did not take into account female sterility or decreases in immune function that could also lead to reproductive isolation. The conclusions drawn by the researchers is valuable for further research into the genetic makeup of which genes are interacting or epistatic on the fertility of hybrid species. Scientists could take the study deeper in an effort to isolate the genes involved and determine which are responsible for speciation in the wild. Overall, this was an excellent article, the authors explained the data clearly and used previous research to back up their hypothesis. The authors broke down each aspect of X-linked, Haldanes rule, D-M incompatibility, and polymorphism as it pertained to their results showing how their study supported previous results and could lead to future explanations of speciation. Reference Good, J., Handel, M., Nachman, M. (2007). Asymmetry And Polymorphism Of Hybrid Male Sterility During The Early Stages Of Speciation In House Mice. Evolution, 62(1), 50-65. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00257.x

The Christian Perspective on Capital Punishment and Rehabilitation Ess

Abstract Christian’s hold three distinct perspectives on capital punishment, namely Rehabilitationism, Reconstructionism and Retributionism. Rehabilitationism is the view that death sentence should not be allowed for any crime; Reconstructionism holds that death penalty should be allowed for any serious crime; Retributionism recommends death sentence for some capital crimes. The last two positions share a somewhat similar view. This paper focuses on rehabilitationism. Proponents of this view comprise those who appeal to the Bible for justification and those who do not. The paper presents the arguments of those in the former group. Contrary to the view of the rehabilitationalists that the aim of punishment is reformatory or remedial, the paper argues that the aim of capital punishment is justice and a good society. Conceptualization of Capital Punishment and Rehabilitationism Capital punishment is the taking of an offender’s life for a crime which he has committed and found guilty of by a court or tribunal under law. For Etuk, capital punishment is the death penalty when it is executed after a due process of law carried out by a society’s duly constituted apparatus (2000, 6). It is distinguished from other forms of extra-legal killings such as shooting on sight of suspected criminals, assassinations, disappearance of persons carried out by state agents, among others. Capital punishment thus defined has existed in almost all civilizations and the modes of its execution have varied from country to country. Amnesty International in 1989 listed out the following modes of execution in current use: hanging, shooting, electrocution, lethal injection, gassing, beheading and stoning (Etuk, 6). In Nigeria, the most prominent me... ...ence†. SOPHIA: An African Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 2 No 1, 2000, pp 1 – 18. Geisler, N. L. Christian Ethics. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1989. Ige, E.    â€Å"Death Penalty in the Dock: Seminar that Explores its Retention or Abolition†. Vanguard, November 1, 2002. Iwe, N. S. S. Socio-Ethical Issues in Nigeria. Oruowulu – Obosi: Pacific Publishers, 1991. Stamps, D. C. (ed.) The Full Life Bible Study. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992. Walvoord, J. F. & Zuck, R. B. The Bible Knowledge Commentary (Old Testament). USA: Cook communications Ministries, 1983. Walvoord, J. F. & Zuck, R. B. The Bible Knowledge Commentary (New Testament). USA: Cook communications Ministries, 1983.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods

Discuss the main differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection and analysis in management research. Your answer should make reference to the philosophical assumptions which underpin these methodological approaches. Introduction Whenever a decision is made to undertake a piece of research a method for conducting the study is required. In scientific research the techniques typically used for data collection and analysis are those which allow the evaluation of data to test a predetermined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). An example of this is a laboratory-based experiment where the researcher can be in full control of all the variables involved and can therefore be sure that any change in the phenomena under investigation is a direct result of an identified and controlled stimulus. In marketing research however, which is usually reliant on some aspect of human influence, it has been proposed that such a uniform, rigid approach is not appropriate: â€Å"There is never a single, perfect research design that is the best for all marketing research projects, or even a specific type of marketing research task. (Malhotra and Birks, 2000: p. 70) The aim of this assignment is to critically evaluate the quantitative and qualitative approaches to research, specifically focusing on the marketing perspective. To do this, consideration is firstly given to the basic differences between the qualitative and quantitative approaches, considering the seemingly opposing theoretical paradigms from which they have origina ted. Subsequently the development of the marketing discipline is examined with a specific focus on how and why different research methods have been employed in the field. Attention is Page 1 of 1 iven to the need for marketing to address both the issue of verifying existing hypotheses, and the requirement to develop new theory. As there appears to be no ideal research method for use in marketing it would seem that what is important is being critically aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches available. Finally, therefore, the notion of pluralism, or methodological triangulation, is explored as such an approach is often used to exploit the strengths and minimise weaknesses in research design through the combination of two or more research methods, often from opposing theoretical paradigms. Basic differences between quantitative and qualitative research Qualitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection, analysis and interpretation of data that cannot be meaningfully quantified, that is, summarised in the form of numbers. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Whereas quantitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection of data that involves larger, more representative respondent samples and the numerical calculation of results. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Historically it has been considered that science based disciplines such as mathematics and physics are especially suited to quantitative research methods. Such methods are considered to be objective and lead to numerical, absolute outcomes, which can be verified through repetition and further testing (Zikmund, 2000); in other words the knowledge is external to the knower (Milliken, 2001), and therefore is available be found by whoever conducts the necessary research (Cunningham, 1999). This view of natural science can be considered to fit within the positivist paradigm, where a paradigm can be thought of as theoretical framework for looking at a situation and a basis upon which phenomena can be analysed and interpreted Page 2 of 2 (Gill and Johnson, 2002). Kuhn (1970) supports the need for paradigms on the basis that they bind disciplines together, and without them there would be no valid position from which to undertake research. Deshpande (1983) suggests that the acceptance of a particular theoretical aradigm is typically followed by a choice of a specific set of research methods that appear to fit within it. This is perhaps exemplified by the significant use of laboratory experiments in pure scientific disciplines. Within the social sciences however there has been a long-standing debate surrounding which philosophical standpoint, or paradigm, it is appropriate for research methods to be derived from (Milliken, 2001). Cohen et al (2000) consider there to be two m ajor, apparently contradictory, views relating to how research should be conducted within social science. The first aligns social science with natural science and therefore implies that research in the field should be directed towards the search for universal laws which regulate individual social behaviour. The second focuses on the human element of social science research, with recognition of the notion that people are not inanimate objects and therefore cannot be treated as such. Aligning social science with natural science arguably implies that data collection and analysis is best performed from a positivist standpoint. As research methods favoured by positivists tend towards those reliant on quantification (Gill and Johnson, 2002), it would follow that in management research the focus should be on quantitative research methods. Research conducted from the positivist viewpoint is usually considered to be reductionist in nature, and is often termed hypothetico-deductive, as it aims to derive a result in relation to a predefined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). Conversely, an approach to research which embraces human individuality and places emphasis on how people perceive and give meaning to their own Page 3 of 3 socially created world, can be considered constructivist (Hunt, 1994), and phenomenological (Gill and Johnson, 2002). The focus from this standpoint is therefore on understanding, interpreting and building theory rather than objectively testing, deducing and verifying an existing hypothesis. Such an approach can be considered inductive in nature and therefore favours the adoption of qualitative research methods. ollows: â€Å"†¦the most telling and fundamental distinction between the paradigms is on the dimension of verification versus discovery†¦quantitative methods have been developed most directly for the task of verifying or confirming theories and†¦qualitative methods were purposely developed for the task of discovering or generating theories. † (Reichardt and Cook, 1979: cited in Deshpande, 1983: p. 105 ) This can be explained further as At the extreme of the inductive spectrum lies the concept of grounded theory developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Here the researcher builds theory based entirely on the data obtained in a particular study without the influence of predetermined knowledge or preconceived hypotheses. Taking deduction to the extreme hypotheses can only ever be tested, raising the question of how it is possible to obtain a hypothesis in the first place. This presents a number of dilemmas with regard to research in the field of management, including whether it is more appropriate to test existing hypotheses or to develop new theory. The theory-testing versus theory-generation debate is particularly significant in the field of marketing as, due to the relative youth of the discipline, marketers are faced with the challenge of both obtaining and maintaining respect and credibility for the work that has been done so far (Bartels, 1983); and continuing to generate theory needed to develop a coherent, holistic body of knowledge which will clear up marketing’s existing â€Å"theory mess† (Gummesson, 2002: p. 349). Page 4 of 4 Development of research in the field of marketing The discipline of marketing, which came about as a departure from economics not long after 1900, originally had no identity of its own. There was no predetermined framework for its development, nor any real expectation of what it should, or could, become (Bartels, 1983). The way the discipline started to develop however led to a belief that it had â€Å"†¦meritorious scientific character† (Bartels, 1983: p. 34), which subsequently influenced ideas about the way in which credible research in the field should be conducted. Consequently approaches to research in marketing have historically been dominated by deductive processes (Hyde, 2000). Milliken (2001) supports this with the observation that within the marketing literature there has been little attention paid to qualitative research. If marketing was universally accepted to be akin to a pure science then this may be an acceptable situation. It has been suggested however that, rather than being a science, marketing is actually an art which belongs both to the world of business and the school of humanities (Halliday, 1999). It was noted by Deshpande (1983) that in the early 1980s there were only four major textbooks dealing with the metatheoretical issues in marketing, and it can therefore be understood that â€Å"†¦self conscious reflection on theory construction in marketing is of fairly recent origin. † (p. 104). Peter (1982), supported by Deshpande (1983), argues that the dominant philosophical approach applied in marketing is that of logical empiricism. Such a positivist approach forces a â€Å"†¦search for causality and the assumption of determinism† (Hunt, 1994: p. 7), which directs those conducting marketing research towards hypotheticodeductive methods for the verification of existing theories rather than development of new ones. Page 5 of 5 Goulding (1999) suggests that the popularity of the positivist paradigm may be down to the more transparent rules which it projects with regard to the basis of hypotheses and their testing, resulting in a clearer picture of what is a ccepted to be known and what remains unknown or untested. As marketing is a relatively young discipline, quantitative methods have therefore been regularly favoured over qualitative methods in an attempt to establish credibility and respectability (Bartels, 1983). Bass (1993) unreservedly supports quantitative research and the scientific view of marketing, on the basis of the need to make general laws and principles which can be widely applied. To emphasise his position further Bass (1993) repeatedly refers to the discipline as not as â€Å"marketing† but as â€Å"marketing science†. Despite this apparent favouritism of qualitative research, for establishing integrity and credence, it has been suggested that marketing as a discipline has failed to develop a coherent theoretical foundation due to the inappropriate selection and use of methods within the framework of logical empiricism (Leone and Schultz, 1980). criticises how qualitative research is implemented. Gummesson (2001) also He questions whether or not it is ppropriate to make a jump from a subjective answer given by a person, perhaps in the form of a questionnaire response, to hard facts about the population being studied, and furthermore if a model being selected for use in marketing research can be an appropriate proxy for the particular situation being studied. Gummesson (2001) instead advocates an interactive approach to research in marketing based on â€Å"†¦a humanistic, hermeneutic and phenomenological paradigm. (p. 40). Deshpande (1983) is in agreement with this and proposes that, rather th at the incorrectly using quantitative research methods, the shortfall in theory development in the field may lie in the inappropriate adoption of a quantitative paradigm where a qualitative one would be more appropriate: â€Å"If we ignore the qualitative paradigm, we also by definition exclude the principal systematic means of theory generation. † (Deshpande, 1983: p. 106) Page 6 of 6 The dominance of logical empiricism in marketing has therefore been seen as potentially detrimental to the discipline, because the successful development of an appropriate holistic and sound body of theory is necessary for the credibility of the field in both management and academe (Bartels, 1983). Hunt (1994) however observes that scholars in the field of marketing, particularly those reviewing papers for publication in academic journals, may themselves be responsible for the lack of theory generation by being over critical when reviewing the work of those who attempt to make an original contribution. According to Gummesson (2001) this behaviour reinforces the belief that to build a publications record, and a respectable reputation, marketers are being encouraged to test existing theory using quantitative methods rather than generate theory through qualitative investigation. This, it has been suggested, has resulted in there being no development in general management marketing theory over recent decades, leaving marketing as an array of disjointed theories and ideas founded on arguably obsolete principles Gummesson (2001). The lack of credibility given to qualitative research techniques in marketing from the academic perspective does however appear somewhat ironic given that such methods are widely adopted in marketing research in industry (Deshpande, 1983). Although it may appear that qualitative marketing research is a relatively recent revelation, Deshpande (1983) argues that this is not the case. He observes that there was significant interest in the topic in the 1950s and 1960s. In the early 1980s, Fern (1982) suggested that the reason one specific qualitative technique, focus groups, had failed to gain prominence was a lack of empirical testing, which would allow the theory development necessary to acquire credibility. In other words a qualitative technique struggled to generate recognition because it could not satisfy the positivistic evaluation criteria needed to do so. This is perhaps indicative of the historical power of positivism in marketing academia in determining what can be accepted as credible Page 7 of 7 nd what cannot, regardless of whether or not techniques are accepted in the commercial environment. Malhotra and Peterson (2001) suggest that for marketing to move forward in the twenty-first century it is necessary to bridge the gap between the academic and commercial positions. There is evidence of increasing acceptance of qualitative methods in marketing research, especially in managing research as the marketplace evolves. For example Kozinet z (2002) developed â€Å"netnography† as a technique for gaining insight into online communities based on a combination of the principles of ethnography and focus groups. Quantitative techniques it would appear still have their place in marketing research too, despite the criticisms levelled at them. The SERVQUAL questionnaire for example, originally developed by Parasuraman et al (1988), relies on the collection of data which can be statistically manipulated to determine levels of service quality. Notwithstanding the substantial criticism it has received (see Buttle, 1996), it is still being used in marketing research today (see e. g. DeMoranville and Bienstock, 2003). What it would consequently appear important to recognise is that both quantitative and qualitative methods have their place in marketing research; neither is sufficient on its own, and there is potentially for significant advances to be made if marketing researchers acknowledge this (Deshpande, 1983). Triangulation and methodological pluralism There is a place in marketing research for both qualitative and quantitative research. There is also a significant risk that overly staunch advocates of a single paradigm will forego the quality of their research by valuing the methodological choice above the aim of the particular Page 8 of 8 study (Bartels, 1983). From a marketing research perspective the importance therefore lies in recognition of the relative advantages and disadvantages of both the qualitative and quantitative research and the understanding of the strengths and weakness of particular methods. Cahill (1996) supports this with the recognition that qualitative and quantitative techniques can be complementary, and Milliken (2001) suggests that the reality of a real research situation demands compromise between the seemingly opposed philosophical standpoints on which the methods are based. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods presents the researcher with an opportunity to compensate for the weakness in each approach. (Deshpande, 1983), and within the field of marketing there appears to be a significant move towards combining qualitative and quantitative research methods (Milliken, 2001). Perry (1998) emphasises the benefit of case study methodology in marketing and suggests that there is no need to consider induction and deduction to be mutually exclusive when selecting a research method. He emphasises that realism is the most appropriate paradigm from which to undertake marketing research as it allows the building of new theory whilst incorporating existing knowledge. Strength in method combination does not necessarily have to include qualitative and quantitative approaches. Hall and Rist (1999) present a marketing study based on the triangulation of purely qualitative research methods including focus groups, observation and document examination. They argue that doing this eliminates the risks of relying on a single method and therefore enhances research quality and strengthens the credibility of qualitative techniques. Page 9 of 9 Methodological pluralism, whilst appearing to offer reconciliation between opposing theoretical paradigms in relation to research method choice, does itself introduce debate and criticism. Gill and Johnson (2002) for example note that embracing realism can be seen as accepting positivism at the cost of phenomenology as it may involve the †¦operationalization and measurement of social reality (stimuli) and action (response)†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 170). Consequently, combining research methods can itself become part of the argument rather than a solution. Conclusion The decision of whether to adopt qualitative or quantitative methods in management research historically appears to be based on the philosophical assumptions upheld by the individual researcher or the discipline in which he or she is work ing. A paradigmatic dichotomy between positivism and phenomenology (or constructivism) would seem to have resulted in a situation where, in some instances, the research methodology choice is deemed more significant than the subject of the particular study. Marketing is a relatively young discipline within the field of management and, as such, is faced with the challenge of obtaining and maintaining credibility. To do this it has been proposed that it needs to both test existing theory and generate new theory, however the processes required to achieve these two goals can be seem to stem from diametrically opposed paradigms: theory-testing being achievable through deductive methods; and theory generation relying on an inductive approach. This incommensurability has however been challenged with the assertion that what is important is selecting an appropriate methodology for a particular study, rather than fitting a Page 10 of 10 study to a method. Methodological triangulation has been suggested as a means of achieving this, with a move towards a paradigm of realism where the relative advantages and disadvantages of a number of research methods can be embraced. Whilst at face value this approach may appear to offer a compromise offering the best practical solution to the methodological choice dispute, it also introduces criticism of its own which, in turn fuels the debate further. The general aim of this discussion, to consider the differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods, has itself been conducted from an ostensibly positivistic standpoint. In fact any discussion, comparison or assessment of research methods is arguably starting from a predetermined premise that an objective evaluation is being undertaken (Gill and Johnson, 2002), and can therefore be seen to be embracing positivist ideals. Taking into account the amount of attention that has been paid to philosophical approaches to management research; the ambiguities that are apparent; the ongoing search for the most suitable and appropriate means for conducting studies; and the motivation to establish and maintain credibility, it would seem unlikely that end to the debate regarding research methods in management is in sight: â€Å"Like the earth being round, thus lacking a natural end, the journey in Methodologyland has no end. You search again and again and again, just as the term says: re-search, re-search, re-search. (Gummesson, 2001: p. 29) Page 11 of 11 References Bartels, R. (1983), â€Å"Is marketing defaulting its responsibilities? †, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 32-35 Bass, F. M. (1993), â€Å"The future of research in marketing: Marketing Science†, Journal of Marketing Research, 30(1), pp. 1-6 Buttle, F. (1996), â€Å"SERVQUAL: review, critique, research agenda†, European Journal o f Marketing, 30(1), pp. 8-32 Cahill, D. J. (1996), â€Å"When to use qualitative methods: a new approach†, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 14(6), pp. 16-20 Cohen, L. , Manion, L. and Morr, K. 2000), Research Methods in Education, 5th Edition, Routledge: London Cunningham, A. C. (1999), â€Å"Commentary confessions of a reflective practitioner: meeting the challenges of marketing’s destruction†, European Journal of Marketing, 33(7/8), pp. 685-697 DeMoranville, C. W. and Bienstock, C. C. (2003), â€Å"Question order effects in measuring service quality†, International Journal of research in Marketing, 20(3), pp. 217-231 Deshpande, R. (1983), â€Å"Paradigms Lost: On theory and method in research in marketing†, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 101-110 Fern, E. 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P. 1982), â€Å"Current issues in the philosophy of science: Implications for marketing theory – a panel discussion†, in Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives, Bush, R. F. and Hunt, S. D. (eds. ), Chicago, American Marketing, pp. 11-16 Reichardt, C. S. and Cook, T. D. (1979), â€Å"Beyond qualitative versus quantitative methods†, in Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Evaluation Research, Cook, T. D and Reichardt, (eds. ) Beverley Hills, CA: Sage Zikmund, W. G. (2000), Business Research Methods, 6th Edition, Orlando, USA: The Dryden Press, Harcourt College Publishers Page 13 of 13